Structural Studies Reveal that Endosomal Cations Promote Formation of Infectious Coxsackievirus A9 A-Particles, Facilitating RNA and VP4 Release.

Coxsackievirus A9 (CVA9), an enterovirus, is a common cause of pediatric aseptic meningitis and neonatal sepsis. During cell entry, enterovirus capsids undergo conformational changes leading to expansion, formation of large pores, externalization of VP1 N termini, and loss of the lipid factor from VP1. Factors such as receptor binding, heat, and acidic pH can trigger capsid expansion in some enteroviruses. Here, we show that fatty acid-free bovine serum albumin or neutral endosomal ionic conditions can independently prime CVA9 for expansion and genome release. Our results showed that CVA9 treatment with albumin or endosomal ions generated a heterogeneous population of virions, which could be physically separated by asymmetric flow field flow fractionation and computationally by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and image processing. We report cryo-EM structures of CVA9 A-particles obtained by albumin or endosomal ion treatment and a control nonexpanded virion to 3.5, 3.3, and 2.9 Å resolution, respectively. Whereas albumin promoted stable expanded virions, the endosomal ionic concentrations induced unstable CVA9 virions which easily disintegrated, losing their genome. Loss of most of the VP4 molecules and exposure of negatively charged amino acid residues in the capsid's interior after expansion created a repulsive viral RNA-capsid interface, aiding genome release. IMPORTANCE Coxsackievirus A9 (CVA9) is a common cause of meningitis and neonatal sepsis. The triggers and mode of action of RNA release into the cell unusually do not require receptor interaction. Rather, a slow process in the endosome, independent of low pH, is required. Here, we show by biophysical separation, cryogenic electron microscopy, and image reconstruction that albumin and buffers mimicking the endosomal ion composition can separately and together expand and prime CVA9 for uncoating. Furthermore, we show in these expanded particles that VP4 is present at only ~10% of the occupancy found in the virion, VP1 is externalized, and the genome is repelled by the negatively charged, repulsive inner surface of the capsid that occurs due to the expansion. Thus, we can now link observations from cell biology of infection with the physical processes that occur in the capsid to promote genome uncoating.

Structure of Human Enterovirus 70 and Its Inhibition by Capsid-Binding Compounds.

Enterovirus 70 (EV70) is a human pathogen belonging to the family Picornaviridae. EV70 is transmitted by eye secretions and causes acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis, a serious eye disease. Despite the severity of the disease caused by EV70, its structure is unknown. Here, we present the structures of the EV70 virion, altered particle, and empty capsid determined by cryo-electron microscopy. The capsid of EV70 is composed of the subunits VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4. The partially collapsed hydrophobic pocket located in VP1 of the EV70 virion is not occupied by a pocket factor, which is commonly present in other enteroviruses. Nevertheless, we show that the pocket can be targeted by the antiviral compounds WIN51711 and pleconaril, which block virus infection. The inhibitors prevent genome release by stabilizing EV70 particles. Knowledge of the structures of complexes of EV70 with inhibitors will enable the development of capsid-binding therapeutics against this virus. IMPORTANCE Globally distributed enterovirus 70 (EV70) causes local outbreaks of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis. The discharge from infected eyes enables the high-efficiency transmission of EV70 in overcrowded areas with low hygienic standards. Currently, only symptomatic treatments are available. We determined the structures of EV70 in its native form, the genome release intermediate, and the empty capsid resulting from genome release. Furthermore, we elucidated the structures of EV70 in complex with two inhibitors that block virus infection, and we describe the mechanism of their binding to the virus capsid. These results enable the development of therapeutics against EV70.

Complex decay dynamics of HIV virions, intact and defective proviruses, and 2LTR circles following initiation of antiretroviral therapy.

In persons living with HIV-1 (PLWH) who start antiretroviral therapy (ART), plasma virus decays in a biphasic fashion to below the detection limit. The first phase reflects the short half-life (<1 d) of cells that produce most of the plasma virus. The second phase represents the slower turnover (t1/2 = 14 d) of another infected cell population, whose identity is unclear. Using the intact proviral DNA assay (IPDA) to distinguish intact and defective proviruses, we analyzed viral decay in 17 PLWH initiating ART. Circulating CD4+ T cells with intact proviruses include few of the rapidly decaying first-phase cells. Instead, this population initially decays more slowly (t1/2 = 12.9 d) in a process that largely represents death or exit from the circulation rather than transition to latency. This more protracted decay potentially allows for immune selection. After ∼3 mo, the decay slope changes, and CD4+ T cells with intact proviruses decay with a half-life of 19 mo, which is still shorter than that of the latently infected cells that persist on long-term ART. Two-long-terminal repeat (2LTR) circles decay with fast and slow phases paralleling intact proviruses, a finding that precludes their use as a simple marker of ongoing viral replication. Proviruses with defects at the 5' or 3' end of the genome show equivalent monophasic decay at rates that vary among individuals. Understanding these complex early decay processes is important for correct use of reservoir assays and may provide insights into properties of surviving cells that can constitute the stable latent reservoir.

Glycolytic inhibitor 2-deoxy-d-glucose attenuates SARS-CoV-2 multiplication in host cells and weakens the infective potential of progeny virions.

AIMS: Virus-infected host cells switch their metabolism to a more glycolytic phenotype, required for new virion synthesis and packaging. Therefore, we investigated the effect and mechanistic action of glycolytic inhibitor 2-Deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) on virus multiplication in host cells following SARS-CoV-2 infection. MAIN METHODS: SARS-CoV-2 induced change in glycolysis was examined in Vero E6 cells. Effect of 2-DG on virus multiplication was evaluated by RT-PCR (N and RdRp genes) analysis, protein expression analysis of Nucleocapsid (N) and Spike (S) proteins and visual indication of cytopathy effect (CPE), The mass spectrometry analysis was performed to examine the 2-DG induced change in glycosylation status of receptor binding domain (RBD) in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. KEY FINDINGS: We observed SARS-COV-2 infection induced increased glucose influx and glycolysis, resulting in selectively high accumulation of the fluorescent glucose analog, 2-NBDG in Vero E6 cells. 2-DG inhibited glycolysis, reduced virus multiplication and alleviated cells from virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells. The progeny virions produced from 2-DG treated cells were found unglycosylated at crucial N-glycosites (N331 and N343) of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein, resulting in production of defective progeny virions with compromised infective potential. SIGNIFICANCE: The mechanistic study revealed that the inhibition of SARS-COV-2 multiplication is attributed to 2-DG induced glycolysis inhibition and possibly un-glycosylation of the spike protein, also. Therefore, based on its previous human trials in different types of Cancer and Herpes patients, it could be a potential molecule to study in COVID-19 patients.

Photodynamic Inactivation of Human Coronaviruses.

Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) employs a photosensitizer, light, and oxygen to create a local burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can inactivate microorganisms. The botanical extract PhytoQuinTM is a powerful photosensitizer with antimicrobial properties. We previously demonstrated that photoactivated PhytoQuin also has antiviral properties against herpes simplex viruses and adenoviruses in a dose-dependent manner across a broad range of sub-cytotoxic concentrations. Here, we report that human coronaviruses (HCoVs) are also susceptible to photodynamic inactivation. Photoactivated-PhytoQuin inhibited the replication of the alphacoronavirus HCoV-229E and the betacoronavirus HCoV-OC43 in cultured cells across a range of sub-cytotoxic doses. This antiviral effect was light-dependent, as we observed minimal antiviral effect of PhytoQuin in the absence of photoactivation. Using RNase protection assays, we observed that PDI disrupted HCoV particle integrity allowing for the digestion of viral RNA by exogenous ribonucleases. Using lentiviruses pseudotyped with the SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) protein, we once again observed a strong, light-dependent antiviral effect of PhytoQuin, which prevented S-mediated entry into human cells. We also observed that PhytoQuin PDI altered S protein electrophoretic mobility. The PhytoQuin constituent emodin displayed equivalent light-dependent antiviral activity to PhytoQuin in matched-dose experiments, indicating that it plays a central role in PhytoQuin PDI against CoVs. Together, these findings demonstrate that HCoV lipid envelopes and proteins are damaged by PhytoQuin PDI and expands the list of susceptible viruses.

The atomic portrait of SARS-CoV-2 as captured by cryo-electron microscopy.

Transmission electron microscopy has historically been indispensable for virology research, as it offers unique insight into virus function. In the past decade, as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has matured and become more accessible, we have been able to peer into the structure of viruses at the atomic level and understand how they interact with the host cell, with drugs or with antibodies. Perhaps, there was no time in recent history where cryo-EM was more needed, as SARS-CoV-2 has spread around the globe, causing millions of deaths and almost unquantifiable economic devastation. In this concise review, we aim to mark the most important contributions of cryo-EM to understanding the structure and function of SARS-CoV-2 proteins, from surface spikes to the virus core and from virus-receptor interactions to antibody binding.

Atovaquone and Berberine Chloride Reduce SARS-CoV-2 Replication In Vitro.

Epidemic RNA viruses seem to arise year after year leading to countless infections and devastating disease. SARS-CoV-2 is the most recent of these viruses, but there will undoubtedly be more to come. While effective SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are being deployed, one approach that is still missing is effective antivirals that can be used at the onset of infections and therefore prevent pandemics. Here, we screened FDA-approved compounds against SARS-CoV-2. We found that atovaquone, a pyrimidine biosynthesis inhibitor, is able to reduce SARS-CoV-2 infection in human lung cells. In addition, we found that berberine chloride, a plant-based compound used in holistic medicine, was able to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection in cells through direct interaction with the virion. Taken together, these studies highlight potential avenues of antiviral development to block emerging viruses. Such proactive approaches, conducted well before the next pandemic, will be essential to have drugs ready for when the next emerging virus hits.

The Endothelin Receptor Antagonist Macitentan Inhibits Human Cytomegalovirus Infection.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients and a major etiological factor for congenital birth defects in newborns. Ganciclovir and its pro-drug valganciclovir are the preferred drugs in use today for prophylaxis and treatment of viremic patients. Due to long treatment times, patients are at risk for developing viral resistance to ganciclovir and to other drugs with a similar mechanism of action. We earlier found that the endothelin receptor B (ETBR) is upregulated during HCMV infection and that it plays an important role in the life cycle of this virus. Here, we tested the hypothesis that ETBR blockade could be used in the treatment of HCMV infection. As HCMV infection is specific to humans, we tested our hypothesis in human cell types that are relevant for HCMV pathogenesis; i.e., endothelial cells, epithelial cells and fibroblasts. We infected these cells with HCMV and treated them with the ETBR specific antagonist BQ788 or ETR antagonists that are approved by the FDA for treatment of pulmonary hypertension; macitentan, its metabolite ACT-132577, bosentan and ambrisentan, and as an anti-viral control, we used ganciclovir or letermovir. At concentrations expected to be relevant in vivo, macitentan, ACT-132577 and BQ788 effectively inhibited productive infection of HCMV. Of importance, macitentan also inhibited productive infection of a ganciclovir-resistant HCMV isolate. Our results suggest that binding or signaling through ETBR is crucial for viral replication, and that selected ETBR blockers inhibit HCMV infection.

Synergistic in-vitro antiviral effects of combination treatment using anidulafungin and T-1105 against Zika virus infection.

Zika virus (ZIKV) has been the cause of some epidemics since 2007. The correlations of microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome with ZIKV have been noticed. Unfortunately, researchers have yet to develop an effective vaccine or drug approved for ZIKV infection. Anidulafungin is a member of echinocandins that is used to treat candida infections. This study assessed the antiviral capability of anidulafungin against ZIKV. Anidulafungin was shown to significantly decrease viral RNA levels, protein expression levels, viral yields, and the rate of infection. In time of addition assays, anidulafungin exhibited inhibitory activities in the early stages of ZIKV infection. In binding and entry assays, administering anidulafungin did not lead to a corresponding decrease in quantity of viral RNA, but a significant decrease in ZIKV infectivity was observed in virucidal assays. This indicated that anidulafungin interferes directly with virions. T-1105 is a viral polymerase inhibitor, which functions in the late stage of ZIKV infection. When anidulafungin was administered in combination with T-1105, an obvious synergistic effect was observed, resulting in a combination index (CI) value of 0.85 ± 0.13. Finally, we evaluated the effects of echinocandins in terms of half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50), calculation of cytotoxicity concentration 50% (CC50), selectivity index (SI), and Patchdock score. Among the tests, anidulafungin bears the lowest IC50 and highest Patchdock score. Although anidulafungin is classified as a pregnancy category C agent; however, combination therapy of anidulafungin with a viral RNA replication inhibitor could expand treatment options for ZIKV infection.

Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by ß-propiolactone causes aggregation of viral particles and loss of antigenic potential.

Inactivated viral preparations are important resources in vaccine and antisera industry. Of the many vaccines that are being developed against COVID-19, inactivated whole-virus vaccines are also considered effective. ß-propiolactone (BPL) is a widely used chemical inactivator of several viruses. Here, we analyze various concentrations of BPL to effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2 and their effects on the biochemical properties of the virion particles. BPL at 1:2000 (v/v) concentrations effectively inactivated SARS-CoV-2. However, higher BPL concentrations resulted in the loss of both protein content as well as the antigenic integrity of the structural proteins. Higher concentrations also caused substantial aggregation of the virion particles possibly resulting in insufficient inactivation, and a loss in antigenic potential. We also identify that the viral RNA content in the culture supernatants can be a direct indicator of their antigenic content. Our findings may have important implications in the vaccine and antisera industry during COVID-19 pandemic.

Interferon-Induced HERC5 Inhibits Ebola Virus Particle Production and Is Antagonized by Ebola Glycoprotein.

Survival following Ebola virus (EBOV) infection correlates with the ability to mount an early and robust interferon (IFN) response. The host IFN-induced proteins that contribute to controlling EBOV replication are not fully known. Among the top genes with the strongest early increases in expression after infection in vivo is IFN-induced HERC5. Using a transcription- and replication-competent VLP system, we showed that HERC5 inhibits EBOV virus-like particle (VLP) replication by depleting EBOV mRNAs. The HERC5 RCC1-like domain was necessary and sufficient for this inhibition and did not require zinc finger antiviral protein (ZAP). Moreover, we showed that EBOV (Zaire) glycoprotein (GP) but not Marburg virus GP antagonized HERC5 early during infection. Our data identify a novel 'protagonist-antagonistic' relationship between HERC5 and GP in the early stages of EBOV infection that could be exploited for the development of novel antiviral therapeutics.

Protease, Growth Factor, and Heparanase-Mediated Syndecan-1 Shedding Leads to Enhanced HSV-1 Egress.

Heparan sulfate (HS) and heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are considered important for the entry of many different viruses. Previously, we demonstrated that heparanase (HPSE), the host enzyme responsible for cleaving HS chains, is upregulated by herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) infection. Higher levels of HPSE accelerate HS removal from the cell surface, facilitating viral release from infected cells. Here, we study the effects of overexpressing HPSE on viral entry, cell-to-cell fusion, plaque formation, and viral egress. We provide new information that higher levels of HPSE reduce syncytial plaque formation while promoting egress and extracellular release of the virions. We also found that transiently enhanced expression of HPSE did not affect HSV-1 entry into host cells or HSV-1-induced cell-to-cell fusion, suggesting that HPSE activation is tightly regulated and facilitates extracellular release of the maturing virions. We demonstrate that an HSPG-shedding agonist, PMA; a protease, thrombin; and a growth factor, EGF as well as bacterially produced recombinant heparinases resulted in enhanced HSV-1 release from HeLa and human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells. Our findings here underscore the significance of syndecan-1 functions in the HSV-1 lifecycle, provide evidence that the shedding of syndecan-1 ectodomain is another way HPSE works to facilitate HSV-1 release, and add new evidence on the significance of various HSPG shedding agonists in HSV-1 release from infected cells.

Ethacridine inhibits SARS-CoV-2 by inactivating viral particles.

The respiratory disease COVID-19 is caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Here we report the discovery of ethacridine as a potent drug against SARS-CoV-2 (EC50 ~ 0.08 µM). Ethacridine was identified via high-throughput screening of an FDA-approved drug library in living cells using a fluorescence assay. Plaque assays, RT-PCR and immunofluorescence imaging at various stages of viral infection demonstrate that the main mode of action of ethacridine is through inactivation of viral particles, preventing their binding to the host cells. Consistently, ethacridine is effective in various cell types, including primary human nasal epithelial cells that are cultured in an air-liquid interface. Taken together, our work identifies a promising, potent, and new use of the old drug via a distinct mode of action for inhibiting SARS-CoV-2.

A unified route for flavivirus structures uncovers essential pocket factors conserved across pathogenic viruses.

The epidemic emergence of relatively rare and geographically isolated flaviviruses adds to the ongoing disease burden of viruses such as dengue. Structural analysis is key to understand and combat these pathogens. Here, we present a chimeric platform based on an insect-specific flavivirus for the safe and rapid structural analysis of pathogenic viruses. We use this approach to resolve the architecture of two neurotropic viruses and a structure of dengue virus at 2.5 Å, the highest resolution for an enveloped virion. These reconstructions allow improved modelling of the stem region of the envelope protein, revealing two lipid-like ligands within highly conserved pockets. We show that these sites are essential for viral growth and important for viral maturation. These findings define a hallmark of flavivirus virions and a potential target for broad-spectrum antivirals and vaccine design. We anticipate the chimeric platform to be widely applicable for investigating flavivirus biology.

Phenolic compounds disrupt spike-mediated receptor-binding and entry of SARS-CoV-2 pseudo-virions.

In the pursuit of suitable and effective solutions to SARS-CoV-2 infection, we investigated the efficacy of several phenolic compounds in controlling key cellular mechanisms involved in its infectivity. The way the SARS-CoV-2 virus infects the cell is a complex process and comprises four main stages: attachment to the cognate receptor, cellular entry, replication and cellular egress. Since, this is a multi-part process, it creates many opportunities to develop effective interventions. Targeting binding of the virus to the host receptor in order to prevent its entry has been of particular interest. Here, we provide experimental evidence that, among 56 tested polyphenols, including plant extracts, brazilin, theaflavin-3,3'-digallate, and curcumin displayed the highest binding with the receptor-binding domain of spike protein, inhibiting viral attachment to the human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor, and thus cellular entry of pseudo-typed SARS-CoV-2 virions. Both, theaflavin-3,3'-digallate at 25 µg/ml and curcumin above 10 µg/ml concentration, showed binding with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor reducing at the same time its activity in both cell-free and cell-based assays. Our study also demonstrates that brazilin and theaflavin-3,3'-digallate, and to a still greater extent, curcumin, decrease the activity of transmembrane serine protease 2 both in cell-free and cell-based assays. Similar pattern was observed with cathepsin L, although only theaflavin-3,3'-digallate showed a modest diminution of cathepsin L expression at protein level. Finally, each of these three compounds moderately increased endosomal/lysosomal pH. In conclusion, this study demonstrates pleiotropic anti-SARS-CoV-2 efficacy of specific polyphenols and their prospects for further scientific and clinical investigations.

Functional and structural characterization of a two-MAb cocktail for delayed treatment of enterovirus D68 infections.

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is an emerging pathogen associated with respiratory diseases and/or acute flaccid myelitis. Here, two MAbs, 2H12 and 8F12, raised against EV-D68 virus-like particle (VLP), show distinct preference in binding VLP and virion and in neutralizing different EV-D68 strains. A combination of 2H12 and 8F12 exhibits balanced and potent neutralization effects and confers broader protection in mice than single MAbs when given at onset of symptoms. Cryo-EM structures of EV-D68 virion complexed with 2H12 or 8F12 show that both antibodies bind to the canyon region of the virion, creating steric hindrance for sialic acid receptor binding. Additionally, 2H12 binding can impair virion integrity and trigger premature viral uncoating. We also capture an uncoating intermediate induced by 2H12 binding, not previously described for picornaviruses. Our study elucidates the structural basis and neutralizing mechanisms of the 2H12 and 8F12 MAbs and supports further development of the 2H12/8F12 cocktail as a broad-spectrum therapeutic agent against EV-D68 infections in humans.

Antiviral activities of four marine sulfated glycans against adenovirus and human cytomegalovirus.

Broad-spectrum antivirals are more needed than ever to provide treatment options for novel emerging viruses and for viruses that lack therapeutic options or have developed resistance. A large number of viruses rely on charge-dependent non-specific interactions with heparan sulfate (HS), a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG), for attachment to cell surfaces to initiate cell entry. As such, inhibitors targeting virion-HS interactions have potential to have broad-spectrum antiviral activity. Previous research has explored organic and inorganic small molecules, peptides, and GAG mimetics to disrupt virion-HS interactions. Here we report antiviral activities against both enveloped (the herpesvirus human cytomegalovirus) and non-enveloped (adenovirus) DNA viruses for four defined marine sulfated glycans: a sulfated galactan from the red alga Botryocladia occidentalis; a sulfated fucan from the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus, and a sulfated fucan and a fucosylated chondroitin sulfate from the sea cucumber Isostichopus badionotus. As evidenced by gene expression, time of addition, and treatment/removal assays, all four novel glycans inhibited viral attachment and entry, most likely through interactions with virions. The sulfated fucans, which both lack anticoagulant activity, had similar antiviral profiles, suggesting that their activities are not only due to sulfation content or negative charge density but also due to other physicochemical factors such as the potential conformational shapes of these carbohydrates in solution and upon interaction with virion proteins. The structural and chemical properties of these marine sulfated glycans provide unique opportunities to explore relationships between glycan structure and their antiviral activities.

Human parvovirus B19 interacts with globoside under acidic conditions as an essential step in endocytic trafficking.

The glycosphingolipid (GSL) globoside (Gb4) is essential for parvovirus B19 (B19V) infection. Historically considered the cellular receptor of B19V, the role of Gb4 and its interaction with B19V are controversial. In this study, we applied artificial viral particles, genetically modified cells, and specific competitors to address the interplay between the virus and the GSL. Our findings demonstrate that Gb4 is not involved in the binding or internalization process of the virus into permissive erythroid cells, a function that corresponds to the VP1u cognate receptor. However, Gb4 is essential at a post-internalization step before the delivery of the single-stranded viral DNA into the nucleus. In susceptible erythroid Gb4 knockout cells, incoming viruses were arrested in the endosomal compartment, showing no cytoplasmic spreading of capsids as observed in Gb4-expressing cells. Hemagglutination and binding assays revealed that pH acts as a switch to modulate the affinity between the virus and the GSL. Capsids interact with Gb4 exclusively under acidic conditions and dissociate at neutral pH. Inducing a specific Gb4-mediated attachment to permissive erythroid cells by acidification of the extracellular environment led to a non-infectious uptake of the virus, indicating that low pH-mediated binding to the GSL initiates active membrane processes resulting in vesicle formation. In summary, this study provides mechanistic insight into the interaction of B19V with Gb4. The strict pH-dependent binding to the ubiquitously expressed GSL prevents the redirection of the virus to nonpermissive tissues while promoting the interaction in acidic intracellular compartments as an essential step in infectious endocytic trafficking.

Aptamers for Anti-Viral Therapeutics and Diagnostics.

Viral infections cause a host of fatal diseases and seriously affect every form of life from bacteria to humans. Although most viral infections can receive appropriate treatment thereby limiting damage to life and livelihood with modern medicine and early diagnosis, new types of viral infections are continuously emerging that need to be properly and timely treated. As time is the most important factor in the progress of many deadly viral diseases, early detection becomes of paramount importance for effective treatment. Aptamers are small oligonucleotide molecules made by the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). Aptamers are characterized by being able to specifically bind to a target, much like antibodies. However, unlike antibodies, aptamers are easily synthesized, modified, and are able to target a wider range of substances, including proteins and carbohydrates. With these advantages in mind, many studies on aptamer-based viral diagnosis and treatments are currently in progress. The use of aptamers for viral diagnosis requires a system that recognizes the binding of viral molecules to aptamers in samples of blood, serum, plasma, or in virus-infected cells. From a therapeutic perspective, aptamers target viral particles or host cell receptors to prevent the interaction between the virus and host cells or target intracellular viral proteins to interrupt the life cycle of the virus within infected cells. In this paper, we review recent attempts to use aptamers for the diagnosis and treatment of various viral infections.

Can ketone bodies inactivate coronavirus spike protein? The potential of biocidal agents against SARS-CoV-2.

Biocidal agents such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde are able to inactivate several coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-2. In this article, an insight into one mechanism for the inactivation of these viruses by those two agents is presented, based on analysis of previous observations during electron microscopic examination of several members of the orthocoronavirinae subfamily, including the new virus SARS-CoV-2. This inactivation is proposed to occur through Schiff base reaction-induced conformational changes in the spike glycoprotein leading to its disruption or breakage, which can prevent binding of the virus to cellular receptors. Also, a new prophylactic and therapeutic measure against SARS-CoV-2 using acetoacetate is proposed, suggesting that it could similarly break the viral spike through Schiff base reaction with lysines of the spike protein. This measure needs to be confirmed experimentally before consideration. In addition, a new line of research is proposed to help find a broad-spectrum antivirus against several members of this subfamily.