Variation in pestivirus growth in testicle primary cell culture is more dependent on the individual cell donor than cattle breed.

The causes of bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) are multifactorial and include infection with both viral and bacterial pathogens. Host factors are also involved as different breeds of cattle appear to have different susceptibilities to BRDC. Infection with bovine pestiviruses, including bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV1), BVDV2 and 'HoBi'-like viruses, is linked to the development of BRDC. The aim of the present study was to compare the growth of different bovine pestiviruses in primary testicle cell cultures obtained from taurine, indicine and mixed taurine and indicine cattle breeds. Primary cells strains, derived from testicular tissue, were generated from three animals from each breed. Bovine pestivirus strains used were from BVDV-1a, BVDV-1b, BVDV-2a and 'HoBi'-like virus. Growth was compared by determining virus titers after one passage in primary cells. All tests were run in triplicate. Virus titers were determined by endpoint dilution and RT-qPCR. Statistical analysis was performed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the Tukey's Multiple Comparison Test (P˂0.05). Significant differences in virus growth did not correlate with cattle breed. However, significant differences were observed between cells derived from different individuals regardless of breed. Variation in the replication of virus in primary cell strains may reflect a genetic predisposition that favors virus replication.

Cytopathic BVDV-1 strain induces immune marker production in bovine cells through the NF-κB signaling pathway.

The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV-1) is a pathogen responsible for high economic losses in the cattle industry worldwide. This virus has the capacity to modulate the immune system of several higher vertebrates, but there is little information available on the cell infection mechanism. To further investigate the effects of BVDV-1 on the activation of the immune response, the Madin-Darby bovine kidney cell line was infected with the cytopathic CH001 field isolate of BVDV-1, and the proinflammatory and antiviral cytokine expression profiles were analyzed. The results showed that BVDV-1 was able to induce the production of BCL3, IL-1ß, IL-8, IL-15, IL-18, Mx-1, IRF-1, and IRF-7 in a way similar to polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid. Interestingly, all BVDV-1 activities were blocked by pharmacological inhibitors of the NF-κB signaling pathway. These results, together with in silico analyses showing the presence of several regulatory consensus target motifs, suggest that BVDV-1 regulates gene expression in bovines through the activation of several key transcription factors. Collectively, these data identified BVDV-1 as a viral regulator of immune marker expression, even from early infection. Additionally, this is the first report to find BVDV-1 modulating the activation of cytokine production and transcriptions factors mainly through the NF-κB pathway in vertebrates.

Monitoramento da infecção natural pelo vírus da diarréia viral bovina (bvdv) em rebanhos bovinos / Monitoring of natural infection by bovine viral diarrhea virus (bvdv) in cattle herds

A infecção natural pelo vírus da diarréia viral bovina (BVDV) foi monitorada em três rebanhos bovinos por meio de amostras de soro sangüíneo, obtidas em várias colheitas realizadas em cada rebanho, que foram submetidas ao teste de virusneutralização (VN) para o BVDV-1 e para o BVDV-2. As amostras não reagentes a pelo menos um dos genótipos e aquelas oriundas de bovinos com menos de seis meses de idade, reagentes ou não, foram analisadas pela reação em cadeia da polimerase precedida pela transcrição reversa (RT-PCR) para a pesquisa do BVDV. Em dois rebanhos o vírus não foi detectado em nenhuma amostra e a quantidade de animais reagentes ao vírus no teste de VN, principalmente nos animais jovens, diminuiu à medida que as colheitas foram realizadas. No entanto, no terceiro rebanho, a infecção permaneceu durante o período monitorado, pois o BVDV foi detectado em dois animais persistentemente infectados (PI) e também em um animal transitoriamente infectado (TI). O sistema de criação, bem como o intenso trânsito de animais, foram favoráveis à permanência da infecção nesse último rebanho. A dinâmica da infecção pelo BVDV foi variável nos rebanhos analisados, destacando a provável eliminação espontânea do BVDV no rebanho 1 e os fatores de risco relacionados à transmissão do BVDV, como a freqüente aquisição de animais de diversas procedências pelo rebanho 4, assim como a provável hipótese da infecção do rebanho 17 ter originado a partir do rebanho vizinho.(AU)

Natural infection by bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) was monitored in blood serum samples of three cattle herds. The samples were drawn in several harvests from each herd and submitted to virus neutralization test (VN) against BVDV-1 and BVDV-2. The non reactive samples to at least one of the genotypes and also those collected from calves younger than six months, were analyzed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In two herds, BVDV was not detected in any blood sample and the number of reactive samples to VN test, especially young animals, decreased as the blood sample harvests were conducted. However, in the third herd, the infection remained during the monitored period, because BVDV was detected in two persistently infected animals (PI) and also in one transiently infected animal (TI). The cattle breeding system and intense movement of animals were favorable to the permanence of infection in this last herd. The dynamics of BVDV infection changed in the analyzed herds, highlighting the probable self clearance of BVDV in herd 1 and the risk factors related to transmission of BVDV, such as the frequent purchase of animals from different origins for herd 4, as well as the probable hypothesis that infection of herd 17 may have originated from the neighboring herd.(AU)

Monitoramento da infecção natural pelo vírus da diarréia viral bovina (bvdv) em rebanhos bovinos / Monitoring of natural infection by bovine viral diarrhea virus (bvdv) in cattle herds

A infecção natural pelo vírus da diarréia viral bovina (BVDV) foi monitorada em três rebanhos bovinos por meio de amostras de soro sangüíneo, obtidas em várias colheitas realizadas em cada rebanho, que foram submetidas ao teste de virusneutralização (VN) para o BVDV-1 e para o BVDV-2. As amostras não reagentes a pelo menos um dos genótipos e aquelas oriundas de bovinos com menos de seis meses de idade, reagentes ou não, foram analisadas pela reação em cadeia da polimerase precedida pela transcrição reversa (RT-PCR) para a pesquisa do BVDV. Em dois rebanhos o vírus não foi detectado em nenhuma amostra e a quantidade de animais reagentes ao vírus no teste de VN, principalmente nos animais jovens, diminuiu à medida que as colheitas foram realizadas. No entanto, no terceiro rebanho, a infecção permaneceu durante o período monitorado, pois o BVDV foi detectado em dois animais persistentemente infectados (PI) e também em um animal transitoriamente infectado (TI). O sistema de criação, bem como o intenso trânsito de animais, foram favoráveis à permanência da infecção nesse último rebanho. A dinâmica da infecção pelo BVDV foi variável nos rebanhos analisados, destacando a provável eliminação espontânea do BVDV no rebanho 1 e os fatores de risco relacionados à transmissão do BVDV, como a freqüente aquisição de animais de diversas procedências pelo rebanho 4, assim como a provável hipótese da infecção do rebanho 17 ter originado a partir do rebanho vizinho.

Natural infection by bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) was monitored in blood serum samples of three cattle herds. The samples were drawn in several harvests from each herd and submitted to virus neutralization test (VN) against BVDV-1 and BVDV-2. The non reactive samples to at least one of the genotypes and also those collected from calves younger than six months, were analyzed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In two herds, BVDV was not detected in any blood sample and the number of reactive samples to VN test, especially young animals, decreased as the blood sample harvests were conducted. However, in the third herd, the infection remained during the monitored period, because BVDV was detected in two persistently infected animals (PI) and also in one transiently infected animal (TI). The cattle breeding system and intense movement of animals were favorable to the permanence of infection in this last herd. The dynamics of BVDV infection changed in the analyzed herds, highlighting the probable self clearance of BVDV in herd 1 and the risk factors related to transmission of BVDV, such as the frequent purchase of animals from different origins for herd 4, as well as the probable hypothesis that infection of herd 17 may have originated from the neighboring herd.

Testes de ELISA e vírus-neutralização na detecção de anticorpos contra o vírus da diarréia viral bovina no leite / ELISA and virus- neutralization in the detection of antibodies against bovine viral diarrhea virus in milk

O sucesso na estratégia de controle e erradicação do vírus da diarréia viral bovina (BVDV), passa necessariamente pela identificação e eliminação dos animais persistentemente infectados (PI). Como esses animais excretam continuamente o vírus em suas secreções e excreções, a prevalência de anticorpos no rebanho, frequentemente é alta e com altos títulos. Devido a essas características, amostras de tanques coletivos de leite, foram submetidas a duas técnicas sorológicas, a fim de estabelecer a mais adequada na realização de triagem de rebanhos. Para isso, 767 amostras coletivas de leite foram submetidas à análise por um kit ELISA indireto (teste referência) e pela técnica de vírus-neutralização (VNT) adaptada (teste proposto). Devido aos efeitos tóxicos do leite sobre o cultivo celular, a adaptação consistiu no aumento do volume final na etapa de incubação celular. Foram positivas, 177 e 139 amostras no ELISA e na VNT, respectivamente. Com isso, a VNT adaptada apresentou uma sensibilidade de 76,8 por cento e uma especificidade de 99,5 por cento. O índice Kappa (k) foi de 0,82, demonstrando uma ótima concordância entre as duas técnicas. A análise do coeficiente de correlação entre os valores de absorbância no ELISA (OD) e os títulos de anticorpos na VNT nas amostras positivas, demonstrou uma positividade moderada (r = 0,57) com p < 0,05. No entanto, várias amostras com títulos altos na VNT apresentaram ODs moderadas ou baixas. Por outro lado, algumas amostras com títulos neutralizantes baixos apresentaram ODs altas. Como a presença de animais PI é sugerida por títulos neutralizantes ≥ 80, conclui-se que a técnica de VNT adaptada é mais adequada para a realização de triagem em amostras coletivas de leite quando objetiva-se detectar rebanhos com altos títulos de anticorpos.(AU)

The success of control/eradication programs of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection necessarily includes the identification and elimination of persistently infected (PI) animals. Since these animals continuously shed virus in secretions and excretions, the prevalence of antibodies in herds with PI animals is often high, and with high titers. Because of these characteristics, bulk milk samples were subjected to two serological techniques in order to establish the most appropriate in conducting screening of herds. For this, 767 bulk milk samples were analyzed by a indirect ELISA kit (reference test) and by an adapted virus neutralization (VNT) assay (proposed test). The toxic effects of milk on cell culture were reduced by increasing the final volume. One hundred seventy seven and 139 samples were positive in ELISA and VNT, respectively. Thus, the adapted VNT had a sensitivity of 76.8 percent and a specificity of 99.5 percent. The Kappa index (k) was 0.82, demonstrating an excellent agreement between the two techniques. The analysis of the coefficient of correlation between the absorbance values (OD) and VNT titers demonstrated a moderate positivity (r = 0.57). However, a significant part of samples with VNT titers ≥ 80 did not show high OD values. On the other hand, some samples with low VNT titers presented high ODs. VNT titers ≥ 80 are suggestive of the presence of PI animals in the herd. Therefore we conclude that the adapted VNT is more appropriate for herd screening when searching for herds with high antibody titers.(AU)

In vitro amplification of BVDV field strains isolated in Argentina: effect of cell line and culture conditions.

The aim of this work was to study the in vitro amplification of BVDV (Pestivirus, Flaviridae) field isolates from Argentina in MDBK, BoTur and BHK-21 continuous cell lines. Field isolates 99/134 (mucosal disease), 00/693 (mucosal disease), 04P7016 (respiratory disease) and 04/89 (mucosal disease), genotype 1b, were used and compared with the Singer and NADL reference strains, genotype 1a. Additionally, cell lines derived from explants of bovine testis (RD-420), bovine uterus (NCL-1) and porcine kidney (PKZ) were tested as alternative substrates for BVDV propagation in vitro. The effect of cell line, harvest time and infection protocol was evaluated. The viral titers observed depended on the virus and harvest time but not on the infection protocol. We found that MDBK and BoTur cell lines were susceptible to the infection whereas BHK-21 and PKZ were not. NADL viral titers, 00/693 and 04/89, increased from 24 to 48 h p.i. in BoTur cells and then reached a plateau, whereas those of 99/134 and 04P7016 remained constant between 24 and 72 h p.i. BVDV Singer, on the other hand, presented a maximum titer at 24 h p.i. and then decreased. BVDV-NADL titers increased in MDBK and NCL-1 but not in RD-420 between 24 and 48 h p.i., and then decreased at 72 h p.i. These facts lead us to conclude that neither the subgenotypes (1a, 1b) nor the clinical symptoms of the animal from the virus had been isolated seem to affect the virus cell line kinetics of viral replication in vitro. On the other hand, the most homogenous behavior, the most similar replication curves, and highest titers observed in MDBK and NCL-1 seem to indicate that these lines are generally more susceptible to BVDV replication.

In vitro amplification of BVDV field strains isolated in Argentina: effect of cell line and culture conditions / Amplificación in vitro de cepas de campo de virus de la diarrea viral bovina (VDVB) aisladas en Argentina: efecto de la línea celular y las condicioes de cultivo

The aim of this work was to study the in vitro amplification of BVDV (Pestivirus, Flaviridae) field isolates from Argentina in MDBK, BoTur and BHK-21 continuous cell lines. Field isolates 99/134 (mucosal disease), 00/693 (mucosal disease), 04P7016 (respiratory disease) and 04/89 (mucosal disease), genotype 1b, were used and compared with the Singer and NADL reference strains, genotype 1a. Additionally, cell lines derived from explants of bovine testis (RD- 420), bovine uterus (NCL-1) and porcine kidney (PKZ) were tested as alternative substrates for BVDV propagation in vitro. The effect of cell line, harvest time and infection protocol was evaluated. The viral titers observed depended on the virus and harvest time but not on the infection protocol. We found that MDBK and BoTur cell lines were susceptible to the infection whereas BHK-21 and PKZ were not. NADL viral titers, 00/693 and 04/89, increased from 24 to 48 h p.i. in BoTur cells and then reached a plateau, whereas those of 99/134 and 04P7016 remained constant between 24 and 72 h p.i. BVDV Singer, on the other hand, presented a maximum titer at 24 h p.i. and then decreased. BVDV-NADL titers increased in MDBK and NCL-1 but not in RD-420 between 24 and 48 h p.i., and then decreased at 72 h p.i. These facts lead us to conclude that neither the subgenotypes (1a, 1b) nor the clinical symptoms of the animal from the virus had been isolated seem to affect the virus cell line kinetics of viral replication in vitro. On the other hand, the most homogenous behavior, the most similar replication curves, and highest titers observed in MDBK and NCL-1 seem to indicate that these lines are generally more susceptible to BVDV replication.

Se estudió la interacción de aislamientos de campo de Argentina del VDVB (Pestivirus, Flaviridae) en las líneas celulares continuas MDBK, BoTur y BHK-21. Se utilizaron los virus de campo genotipo 1b, 99/134, 00/693 (casos compatibles con enfermedad de las mucosas) y 04P7016 (cuadro respiratorio) y las cepas de referencia genotipo 1a Singer y NADL. Además se evaluó la interacción de VDVB-NADL con las líneas celulares experimentales de bovino RD-420 y NCL-1 y de riñón porcino (PKZ). Se usaron 2 protocolos de infección. Los títulos virales observados dependieron del virus y del tiempo de infección y no así del modo de infección. Mientras que MDBK y BoTur resultaron susceptibles a la infección, BHK-21 y PKZ no lo fueron. Los virus NADL, 00/693 y 04/89 incrementaron su título entre las 24 y las 48 h p.i. en BoTur para mantenerlo posteriormente; los virus 99/134 y 04P7016 no presentaron variaciones y la cepa Singer presentó título máximo a las 24 h p.i para luego descender. La cinética del virus NADL en las células MDBK, RD-420 y NCL-1 tuvo un incremento de título para MDBK y NCL-1 entre las 24 y 48 h p.i que descendió a las 72 h p.i. La interacción virus-línea celular no estaría relacionada con el sub-genotipo del virus (1a o 1b), ni con el cuadro clínico; las células MDBK y NCL-1 serían más susceptibles a la replicación del VDVB.

Selection and characterization of canine, swine and rabbit cell lines resistant to bovine viral diarrhea virus.

Contamination of cell cultures with adventitious viruses may pose serious risks for virology diagnosis, research and vaccine production. This article reports the selection and characterization of three cell lines resistant to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), a major contaminant of cell cultures. The resistant cells were obtained from canine (MDCK), swine (PK-15) and rabbit (RK-13) parental cell lines by expanding and cloning cells that survived lytic infection with BVDV. All three selected cell lines were resistant to three standard BVDV strains and to 10 field isolates as demonstrated by immunofluorescence for viral antigens and by co-cultivation with susceptible cells. Inoculation of selected cells with BVDV (10 TCID50/cell) resulted in frequencies of infection of <10(-5) (MDCK-R, PK-15R) and 3.3 x 10(-4) (RK-13R). Comparing to the parental cell lines, these cells were >10,000-, >20,000- and 600-fold less susceptible to BVDV, respectively. Inoculation of resistant cells with BVDV in the presence of polyethylene-glycol increased the frequency of infection in the order of >437-, >346- and 87-fold, respectively, indicating that resistance is probably due to a block in viral entry. Nevertheless, each resistant cell line retained the susceptibility to three other viruses that replicate in the parental cells. Thus, these cells may be useful for many virology purposes, with a very low risk of BVDV contamination.