The Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) in animal feeding.

The contamination of cereal grains with toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, mycotoxins, is a permanent challenge in animal nutrition as health and performance of the animals may be compromised as well as the quality of animal derived food. Therefore the present article reviews the issue of mycotoxins in animal nutrition. As the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) are of particular importance under the production conditions in central Europe and Germany, with respect to their frequent occurrence in toxicologically relevant concentrations, special emphasis is layed on those mycotoxins. The effects of DON and ZON on susceptible animals as well as management strategies to cope with the contamination of grain with those toxins are reviewed.

Mycoestrogen pollution of Italian infant food.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the concentrations of zearalenone and its metabolites in the leading brands of infant formula milks and meat-based infant foods commonly marketed in Italy, and to assess their repercussion in the provisional tolerable daily intakes of these estrogenic mycotoxins. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 185 cow's milk-based infant formulas and 44 samples of meat-based infant foods samples were analyzed. The analysis of mycotoxins was performed by immunoaffinity column clean-up and high-pressure liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. RESULTS: Zearalenone was detected in 17 (9%) milk samples (maximum 0.76 µg/L). The α-zearalenol was detected in 49 (26%) milk samples (maximum 12.91 µg/L). The ß-zearalenol was detected in 53 (28%) milk samples (maximum 73.24 µg/L). The α-zearalanol and ß-zearalanol were not detected in milk samples. Although α-zearalenol was detected in 12 (27%) meat samples (maximum 30.50 µg/kg), only one meat-based sample was contaminated by α-zearalanol (950 µg/kg). Zearalenone, ß-zearalenol, and ß-zearalanol were not detected in meat samples. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows the presence of mycoestrogens in infant (milk-based and meat-based) food, and this is likely to have great implications for subsequent generations, suggesting the need to perform occurrence surveys in this type of food.

Effects of fusariotoxins in the equine species.

Fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone are the most commonly occurring Fusarium mycotoxins in cereal grains and animal feed. In this review, the toxicity of these mycotoxins in horses is considered with particular reference to recent data on specific and proposed syndromes. Compared to other animal species, very little information is available on the adverse effects of fusariotoxins in horses. Fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)) is the causative agent of leukoencephalomalacia, which is typified by depression, aimless circling, head pressing, paresis, ataxia, blindness and death. FB(1) has also been shown to cause liver damage and cardiovascular dysfunction. Exposure to deoxynivalenol in conjunction with other fusariotoxins seems to be associated with reduction of feed intake and decrease in bodyweight, whilst the T-2 Fusarium mycotoxin may typically induce oral lesions and zearalenone has been implicated in reproductive disorders. Many questions remain on the synergic effects of fusariotoxins and on a possible relationship between mycotoxins and equine colic.

Comparison of human health risks resulting from exposure to fungicides and mycotoxins via food.

The interest in holistic considerations in the area of food safety is increasing. Risk managers may face the problem that reducing the risk of one compound may increase the risk of another compound. An example is the potential increase in mycotoxin levels due to a reduced use of fungicides in crop production. The Integrated Probabilistic Risk Assessment (IPRA) model was used to compare the estimated health impacts on humans caused by crops contaminated with the fungicides spiroxamine (SPI) and tebuconazole (TEB) or with the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA). The IPRA model integrates a distribution characterising the exposure of individuals with a distribution characterising the susceptibility of individuals towards toxic effects. Its outcome, a distribution of Individual Margins of Exposure (IMoE), served as basis to perform comparisons of compounds, effects, countries, and population groups. Based on the available data and the assumptions made, none of the four compounds was found to have impact on human health in the addressed scenarios. The IMoE distributions were located as follows: DON

On the interactions between Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat and non-starch-polysaccharide hydrolysing enzymes in turkey diets on performance, health and carry-over of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone.

1. Diets with increasing proportions of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat (0, 170, 340 and 510 g CW/kg) were fed to male turkeys (BUT Big 6) from d 21 to d 56 of age. Each diet was tested with or without a non-starch-polysaccharide (NSP) hydrolysing enzyme preparation. Dietary deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) concentrations were successively increased up to approximately 5.4 and 0.04 mg/kg, respectively. 2. Weight gain decreased slightly with increasing proportions of CW, by 1.6, 0.7 and 3.6%, whereas other performance parameters remained unaffected. NSP enzyme supplements to the diets had no influence. 3. The weight of the emptied jejunum plus ileum, relative to live weight, decreased in a dose-related fashion whereby the NSP enzyme exerted an additional weight-decreasing effect. A similar weight-decreasing NSP enzyme effect was noted for heart weights. Activity of glutamate dehydrogenase in serum was significantly increased in groups fed the diets with the highest CW proportion, whereas gamma-glutamyl-transferase remained unaltered. 4. Viscosity in the small intestine was significantly reduced by supplementing the diets with the NSP enzyme. This effect successively decreased with increasing proportions of the CW. 5. Concentrations of DON and of its de-epoxidised metabolite de-epoxy-DON in plasma, liver and breast meat were lower than the detection limits of 2 ng/ml (plasma) and 4 ng/g, respectively, of the applied HPLC method. DON concentration in bile reached up to 13 to 23 ng/ml whereas de-epoxy-DON concentration was lower than 4 ng/ml. 6. ZON or its metabolites were not detectable in plasma, liver or breast meat (detection limits of the HPLC method were 1, 0.5 and 5 ng/g for ZON, alpha-zearalenol (ZOL) and beta-ZOL, respectively). Concentrations of ZON and alpha-ZOL in bile increased with dietary ZON concentration. The mean proportions of ZON, alpha-ZOL and beta-ZOL of the sum of all three metabolites were 19, 77 and 4%, respectively.

Mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins) in cereals associated with human red-mold intoxications stored since 1989 and 1991 in China.

Two corn powder samples implicated in the human food poisoning that occurred in Guangxi province in 1989, and eight wheat and two barley samples linked to an episode that involved about 130,000 people in gastrointestinal disorders in Anhui province in 1991 were analyzed for trichothecenes including deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV) and their esters, zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins (FMs) by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy and high performance liquid chromatography, and T-2 toxin by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. DON was detected in all samples as a major trichothecene (16-51,450 microg kg(-1)), and NIV was in one corn, one barley and all wheat at relatively low levels (10-6935 microg kg(-1)). ZEA was found in all corn and barley, and six wheat samples (46-3079 microg kg(-1)). In addition, 3-acetyl-DON (2544 microg kg(-1)) and 15-acetyl-DON (2537 microg kg(-1)) were detected separately in one corn and one wheat sample. The highest levels of these mycotoxins were found in one wheat sample associated with the human intoxication in Anhui province. FMs in corn were below 1000 microg kg(-1). Risks of DON and ZEA on the people who consumed the causative cereals were assessed.

Mycotoxins and reproduction in domestic livestock.

Molds are parasitic plants that are ubiquitous in livestock feedstuffs. Even though molds themselves reduce the quality of grains, their synthesis of chemical substances termed mycotoxins causes the greatest monetary loss to the animal industry. Five major mycotoxins that impair growth and reproductive efficiency in North America are aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, and ergot. Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Consumption of grains containing aflatoxins by swine affects reproduction indirectly by reducing feed intake and growth. In swine, aflatoxins impair liver and kidney function, delay blood clotting, increase susceptibility to bruising, and interfere with cellular humoral immune systems. Ruminants are comparatively resistant to aflatoxicosis, but presence of aflatoxins in milk of dairy cows is closely monitored for human safety. Depending on environmental conditions, Fusarium roseum can produce either zearalenone or deoxynivalenol. Days 7 to 10 postmating seem to be a critical period of gestation for zearalenone to exert its detrimental actions on early embryonic development. Presence of deoxynivalenol in swine feedstuffs decreases feed intake, causes feed refusal, and induces occasional vomiting. Several species of Penicillium and Aspergillus produce ochratoxin, a mycotoxin that causes necrosis of kidney tissue. Ergot alkaloids produced by Claviceps purpurea on wheat can cause reproductive problems and are associated with lactational failure in swine. Various methods have been developed to remove mycotoxins from infected feedstuffs. Chemical analyses in laboratories as well as diagnostic kits suitable for use at the elevator or farm can be used successfully to identify which mycotoxins are present in suspect feedstuffs.

Evaluation of use of progesterone to counteract zearalenone toxicosis during early pregnancy in gilts.

It has been shown that zearalenone disrupts early pregnancy in swine without altering intrauterine content of estradiol 17 beta or progesterone, embryo migration, or estradiol-17 beta synthesis by blastocysts. However, serum concentrations of progesterone were reduced 2 to 3 weeks after mating in gilts that ingested zearalenone. Therefore, progesterone was administered to gilts during early pregnancy to determine whether it could counteract the detrimental actions of zearalenone on embryonic development. Thirty-two crossbred gilts (Hampshire x Chester White x Yorkshire x Duroc) were assigned randomly to a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments: zearalenone (Z); zearalenone plus progesterone (ZP); progesterone (P); or control (C). From postmating days 4 to 15, Z- and ZP-treated gilts were fed 1 mg of Z/kg of body weight, and P-treated and C gilts were fed ethanol as vehicle in a corn-soybean diet. On postmating days 3 to 15, P- and ZP-treated gilts were injected IM with 100 mg of progesterone, and C and Z-treated gilts were injected with progesterone carrier (15% ethanol, 15% benzyl alcohol, 70% propylene glycol). Blood was collected from gilts by puncture of the jugular vein daily from days 3 to 15, on alternate days from days 17 to 31, and then twice weekly until the end of the experiment. Fetal development was assessed in Z- and ZP-treated gilts on postmating day 47.6 +/- 2.9 by cesarean section and in P-treated and C gilts at slaughter on postmating days 51.2 +/- 3.2. Serum concentrations of progesterone in P-treated gilts were greater on days 7 to 8, 10 to 15, 17, and 19 than in C gilts. Serum concentrations of progesterone were greater on days 8, 10, and 12 in ZP-treated than in C gilts. However, serum concentrations of progesterone were lower in ZP-treated gilts than in C gilts on postmating days 19 to 31.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Risk assessment to humans of mycotoxins in animal-derived food products.

This paper addresses approaches for assessing potential human health hazards from the presence of natural toxicants, such as mycotoxins, in animal food products. At high levels in feed these mycotoxins may cause loss or illness of farm animals, through development of animal toxicoses, such as aflatoxicosis. At lower levels in feed these mycotoxins may have no apparent effect on livestock production, but their residues and related substances may move up the food chain. This indirect intake of mycotoxins and related substances from the consumption of animal food products may pose a health hazard to humans. These health hazards are compared to the possible health hazards from the direct intake by humans of cereal and other food crops that may contain mycotoxins.

[Mycotoxins as a risk factor for the origin of diseases and production decreases in swine facilities--an epidemiologic study]. / Mykotoxine als Risikofaktor für das Entstehen von Krankheiten und Leistungsminderung in Schweinebeständen--eine epidemiologische Studie.

Feed samples checked for the mycotoxins zearalenone and ochratoxin A from the harvest 1987 were positive at a markedly higher percentage (37.5%) compared to previous years, which is explained by the especially unfavourable harvesting conditions of 1987. In certain herd problems affecting the digestive or respiratory tract, mycotoxins could be detected with a much higher frequency (64.7% and 50.0% respectively). The mean level detected in feed samples by thin layer chromatography ranged within 30.3 ppb for zearalenone and within 58.3 ppb for ochratoxin A. In most cases there was a history of infertility. Considering the clinical situation, which is presented comparatively in herds with positive mycotoxin results, the possible involvement of mycotoxins in the disease, even at very low concentrations, is pointed out. In this context, zearalenone is incriminated of being an indicator of a multitoxic process besides its own direct effects. According to own experiences low levels of zearalenone in the range of 20-50 ppb in the feed have to be considered hazardous. If changing of pig feed in cases of herd problems will be recommended, a level of less than 10 ppb of zearalenone, especially in sow and piglet rations, should not be exceeded. Same may be valid to ochratoxin A.

Effects of immunizing gilts against zearalenone on height of vaginal epithelium and urinary excretion of zearalenone.

Two experiments were conducted to develop a vaginal epithelium bioassay for zearalenone (Z) and to determine whether immunization against Z would prevent Z mycotoxicosis. Eleven gilts were ovariectomized and allotted by weight to dietary doses of 50, 150 or 350 micrograms Z/kg BW daily for 3 d. All doses of Z increased height of the vaginal epithelium. Height of the vaginal epithelium in gilts fed 150 or 350 micrograms Z/kg BW increased more than that in gilts fed 50 micrograms Z/kg BW. Twenty-four gilts then were ovariectomized and allotted to be immunized or not immunized. A Z-bovine serum albumin conjugate was injected into gilts to achieve immunization. Ten weeks after initial immunization, antibodies to Z were detected after a 1:10(7) dilution at greater than .1 absorbance units using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and gilts were allotted by weight to diets with no Z or 150 micrograms Z/kg BW daily for 3 d. Immunization alone had no effect on height of vaginal epithelium, but after 3 and 10 d, immunized gilts fed Z had higher vaginal epithelium than did nonimmunized gilts fed Z. Immunized gilts excreted a larger percentage of ingested Z than nonimmunized gilts did. Therefore, immunizing gilts against Z potentiated both the estrogenic effects of Z and urinary excretion of Z equivalents.

Apparent zearalenone intoxication in a dairy herd from feeding spoiled acid-treated corn.

High-moisture corn was treated with a propionic acid preservative and stored in a 40,000 bushel steel bin. This corn heated and spoiled in storage and subsequently was retreated with the preservative. The out-of-condition corn was used as an ingredient in the ration for a dairy herd of cows and replacement heifers. The finished feed was cultured for fungi and assayed for mycotoxins. Results were 750,000 Fusarium spp colonies/g of feed, and 1.5 mg zearaleonone and 1.0 mg deoxynivalenol/kg of feed. Frequent episodes of behavioral estrus of 2 to 5 d duration, that were not synchronized with the ovarian cycle, were observed. Cows in the second and third trimester of pregnancy also has episodes of behavioral estrus. Idiopathic vaginitis was diagnosed. Mammary development occurred in the prepubertal heifers. Cows bred in true estrus were found in true estrus 35 to 55 d later. All of the heifers with precocious mammary development were subsequently culled from the herd because of sterility.

[Hyperestrogenism in swine due to natural poisoning with zearalenone]. / Hiperestrogenismo en cerdas por intoxicación natural con zearalenona.

A field case is described in which all prepuberal swine of a group of 20 pigs and 11 sows showed marked estrogenic effects. These consisted of enlarged mammary glands, swelled tumefacient vulva, and greatly enlarged internal reproductive organs. The corn used to feed these animals was found to contain 56 ppm zearalenone. Deoxynivalenol (4.9 ppm) was found in the corn; T-2 toxin, nivalenol, fusarenon-X, diacetoxyscirpenol, aflatoxins and ochratoxins were absent. Identity of Z was confirmed by TLC in four solvent systems, behavior of the suspected spots under UV light of different wavelengths, change of fluorescence from green to blue after spraying with 5% AlCl3 in alcohol and heating at 110 degrees C during 5 minutes, and by its UV spectrum. A zearalenone producing strain of Fusarium oxysporum was isolated from the suspected grain. Histopathology of uterine tissue showed typical changes produced by zearalenone: hyperplasia, hypertrophy, and metaplasia of the myometrium. Feeding of the grain to a prepuberal sow under controlled conditions reproduced all the effect found in the farm animals. This is the first field case of zearalenone poisoning reported in Argentina.

[Disease and depression of productivity in raising swine caused by mycotoxins]. / Krankheit und Leistungsdepression in der Schweinehaltung durch Mykotoxine.

Mycotoxins are natural substances, which are poisonous for man and animals. Mycotoxicological investigations, carried out from 1982 to 1986, showed that aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2), trichothecenes (T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, monoacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol and deoxynivalenol) ochratoxin A and zearalenone are to be expected in feedstuffs. Further, sclerotia of Claviceps purpurea were found in cereals repeatedly, which demonstrates that also ergot alkaloids can be found in feedstuffs. The determined toxin concentrations often do not suffice to produce the described "classic" clinical symptoms and pathological changes. On the contrary the continuous intake of small amounts leads to chronic intoxications which are characterized by loss of weight, insufficient gain in weight, fertility disorder or increased susceptibility for infectious diseases. As feedstuffs are mostly contaminated by different kinds of toxinogenic fungi and as fungal strains are frequently able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously, it must be assumed that naturally occurring mycotoxicoses are not monocausal, but multitoxic diseases. Although we have improved analytical methods, naturally occurring mycotoxicoses still cannot always be cleared up completely.

[Trichothecenes in staple food from a high-incidence area of carcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia and their carcinogenic potential].

This is the first report to demonstrate the presence of a group of mycotoxins in corn-staple food of Linxian residents, including Nivalenoal (NIV), Deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), T-2 toxin (these 5 toxins belong to trichothecenes) and zearalenone (ZEN). These 6 toxins were produced by Fusarium species. Using TLC, HPLC, GC, monoclonal antibody affinity column chromatography combined with RIA, respectively, 107 corn samples from Linxian and 2 rice samples from USA were analyzed. It was demonstrated that the average level of NIV was 757 +/- 707(54-2,760)ng/g, DON was 5,376 +/- 4,460 (360-12,670) ng/g with 100% positivity in corn samples consumed as staple food by esophageal cancer patients and their families. Corn samples collected from 5 villages in Linxian at different seasons in 1984-1986 all showed high levels of NIV and DON with 100% positivity which suggested that NIV and DON were consistently and widely existed in Linxian corn samples. Levels of 3-ADON and 15-ADON in Linxian corn were 113 +/- 57 and 495 +/- 538 ng/g. This paper also first demonstrates that the extracts of corn from esophageal cancer patients' families and their NIV and DON fractions purified by HPLC could induce significant chromosome aberrations in V79 cells, indicating that they had carcinogenic potential. Pure toxins of NIV, DON, T-2 and 3-ADON could induce chromosome aberrations in V79 cells starting from 1 ng/ml-a very low concentration. When concentrations increased to certain range they all showed toxic effects.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Hiperestrogenismo en cerdas por intoxicación natural con zearalenona / Hyperestrogenism in swine due to natural poisoning with zearalenone

Se describe un caso de intoxicación de cerdas prepúberes con zearalenona (Z) al consumir una dieta conteniendo 56 ppm Z. En el maíz contaminado se encontró una cepa de Fusarium oxysporum que produjo Z en cultivo sobre ese grano. Se indicaron la evidencias de distinta índole que permitieron confirmar que los efecto observados fueron producidos por dicha micotoxina

Hiperestrogenismo en cerdas por intoxicación natural con zearalenona / Hyperestrogenism in swine due to natural poisoning with zearalenone

Se describe un caso de intoxicación de cerdas prepúberes con zearalenona (Z) al consumir una dieta conteniendo 56 ppm Z. En el maíz contaminado se encontró una cepa de Fusarium oxysporum que produjo Z en cultivo sobre ese grano. Se indicaron la evidencias de distinta índole que permitieron confirmar que los efecto observados fueron producidos por dicha micotoxina (AU)

[Poisoning in swine]. / Vergiftungen beim Schwein.

For clinical interests it is advisable to subdivide cases of swine poisoning in such as caused by food, drugs and environmental poisonings. This division gives pointers to aetiologic connections and special measures necessary for the clearing of the processes. With food poisoning mycotoxicoses play an evermore important role, whereas poisonings by trace elements are on the decrease. Sodium chloride poisoning often results primarily from insufficient water supply. With environmental poisonings carbon monoxide and cyanamide intoxication are presented. Poisonings caused by drugs are mainly the result of an overdose, of segregation in food or of non-licensed drugs. A relatively unknown swine poisoning by a drug against coccidiosis--licensed for poultry--is described.

Fusarial mycotoxins and behaviour: possible implications for psychiatric disorder.

Man and animals are sporadically exposed to mycotoxins (the secondary metabolites of moulds), which include those produced in damp and cool environment by the almost ubiquitous soil-microfungi, the Fusaria. Perinatal exposure to the mycotoxins may cause damage to many organs, including the CNS and those which are targets for oestrogenic agents. Depending on the levels of the mycotoxins and the time of their action, the effects may manifest themselves as neonatal abnormalities, or as neurological and behavioural anomalies and chronic disorders later in life. The relationship between the anatomical and behavioural development of individuals and their perinatal exposure to fusarial mycotoxins requires further investigation.

Rejection by pigs of mouldy grain containing deoxynivalenol.

Weaner pigs on a farm near Beaudesert in south eastern Queensland refused to eat feed comprised largely of wheat and barley. Older pigs consumed small amounts and some prepubertal gilts subsequently displayed enlarged and reddened vulvas. Wheat, barley and triticale were grown on the farm during 1983, which was unusually and persistently wet. The wheat and triticale were harvested and stored for about 3 weeks with moisture contents above 14% before being fed. Samples of the wheat and triticale contained pale pink grains, which can indicate infection by the fungus Fusarium graminearum Schw. On analysis 2 mycotoxins known to be produced by F. graminearum were detected, deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin) which causes feed refusal and vomiting, and zearalenone which causes oestrogenic effects. Concentrations of deoxynivalenol in the wheat, triticale and barley were 34, 10, and less than 0.1 mg/kg respectively. Concentrations of zearalenone were 6.2, 2.8 and 0.1 mg/kg respectively. Subsequently, F. graminearum was isolated from grains and crop residues. Although the wet weather contributed to F. graminearum infection of the crops before harvest, most of the toxins probably developed during storage.