3D-localization of single point-like gamma sources with a coded aperture camera.

Objective.3D-localization of gamma sources has the potential to improve the outcome of radio-guided surgery. The goal of this paper is to analyze the localization accuracy for point-like sources with a single coded aperture camera.Approach.We both simulated and measured a point-like241Am source at 17 positions distributed within the field of view of an experimental gamma camera. The setup includes a0.11mmthick Tungsten sheet with a MURA mask of rank 31 and pinholes of0.08mmin diameter and a detector based on the photon counting readout circuit Timepix3. Two methods, namely an iterative search including either a symmetric Gaussian fitting or an exponentially modified Gaussian fitting (EMG) and a center of mass method were compared to estimate the 3D source position.Main results.Considering the decreasing axial resolution with source-to-mask distance, the EMG improved the results by a factor of 4 compared to the Gaussian fitting based on the simulated data. Overall, we obtained a mean localization error of0.77mmon the simulated and2.64mmon the experimental data in the imaging range of20-100mm.Significance.This paper shows that despite the low axial resolution, point-like sources in the nearfield can be localized as well as with more sophisticated imaging devices such as stereo cameras. The influence of the source size and the photon count on the imaging and localization accuracy remains an important issue for further research.

CdTe XG-Cam: A new high-resolution x-ray and gamma-ray camera for studies of the pharmacokinetics of radiopharmaceuticals in small animals.

BACKGROUND: The recent emergence of targeted radionuclide therapy has increased the demand for imagers capable of visualizing pharmacokinetics in developing radiopharmaceuticals in the preclinical phase. Some radionuclides emit hard x-rays and gamma-rays below 100 keV, in which energy range the performance of conventional NaI scintillators is poor. Multipinhole collimators are also used for small animal imaging with a good spatial resolution but have a limited field of view (FOV). PURPOSE: In this study, a new imager with high sensitivity over a wide FOV in the low-energy band ( < $<$ 100 keV) was developed for the pharmacokinetic study. METHODS: We developed an x-ray and gamma-ray camera for high-resolution spectroscopy, named "CdTe XG-Cam," equipped with a cadmium telluride semiconductor detector and a parallel-hole collimator using a metal 3D printer. To evaluate the camera-system performance, phantom measurements with single and dual nuclides ( 99 m Tc $^{\rm 99m}{\rm Tc}$ , 111 In $^{111}{\rm In}$ , and 125 I ) $^{125}{\rm I)}$ were performed. The performance for in vivo imaging was evaluated using tumor-bearing mice to which a nuclide ( 99 m Tc $^{\rm 99m}{\rm Tc}$ or 125 I ) $^{125}{\rm I)}$  administered. RESULTS: We simultaneously obtained information on 111 In $^{111}{\rm In}$ and 125 I $^{125}{\rm I}$ , which emit emission lines in the low-energy band with peak energies close to each other (23-26 keV for 111 In $^{111}{\rm In}$ and 27-31 keV for 125 I ) $^{125}{\rm I)}$ , and applied an analytical method based on spectral model fitting to determine the individual radioactivities accurately. In the small animal imaging, the distributions of the nuclide in tumors were accurately quantified and time-activity curves in tumors are obtained. CONCLUSIONS: The demonstrated capability of our system to perform in vivo imaging suggests that the camera can be used for applications of pharmacokinetics research.

NaI gamma camera performance for high energies: Effects of crystal thickness, photomultiplier tube geometry and light guide thickness.

BACKGROUND: Gamma camera imaging, including single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), is crucial for research, diagnostics, and radionuclide therapy. Gamma cameras are predominantly based on arrays of photon multipliers tubes (PMTs) that read out NaI(Tl) scintillation crystals. In this way, standard gamma cameras can localize É£-rays with energies typically ranging from 30 to 360 keV. In the last decade, there has been an increasing interest towards gamma imaging outside this conventional clinical energy range, for example, for theragnostic applications and preclinical multi-isotope positron emission tomography (PET) and PET-SPECT. However, standard gamma cameras are typically equipped with 9.5 mm thick NaI(Tl) crystals which can result in limited sensitivity for these higher energies. PURPOSE: Here we investigate to what extent thicker scintillators can improve the photopeak sensitivity for higher energy isotopes while attempting to maintain spatial resolution. METHODS: Using Monte Carlo simulations, we analyzed multiple PMT-based configurations of gamma detectors with monolithic NaI (Tl) crystals of 20 and 40 mm thickness. Optimized light guide thickness together with 2-inch round, 3-inch round, 60 × 60 mm2 square, and 76 × 76 mm2 square PMTs were tested. For each setup, we assessed photopeak sensitivity, energy resolution, spatial, and depth-of-interaction (DoI) resolution for conventional (140 keV) and high (511 keV) energy É£ using a maximum-likelihood algorithm. These metrics were compared to those of a "standard" 9.5 mm-thick crystal detector with 3-inch round PMTs. RESULTS: Estimated photopeak sensitivities for 511 keV were 27% and 53% for 20 and 40 mm thick scintillators, which is respectively, 2.2 and 4.4 times higher than for 9.5 mm thickness. In most cases, energy resolution benefits from using square PMTs instead of round ones, regardless of their size. Lateral and DoI spatial resolution are best for smaller PMTs (2-inch round and 60 × 60 mm2 square) which outperform the more cost-effective larger PMT setups (3-inch round and 76 × 76 mm2 square), while PMT layout and shape have negligible (< 10%) effect on resolution. Best spatial resolution was obtained with 60 × 60 mm2 PMTs; for 140 keV, lateral resolution was 3.5 mm irrespective of scintillator thickness, improving to 2.8 and 2.9 mm for 511 keV with 20 and 40 mm thick crystals, respectively. Using the 3-inch round PMTs, lateral resolutions of 4.5 and 3.9 mm for 140 keV and of 3.5 and 3.7 mm for 511 keV were obtained with 20 and 40 mm thick crystals respectively, indicating a moderate performance degradation compared to the 3.5 and 2.9 mm resolution obtained by the standard detector for 140 and 511 keV. Additionally, DoI resolution for 511 keV was 7.0 and 5.6 mm with 20 and 40 mm crystals using 60 × 60 mm2 square PMTs, while with 3-inch round PMTs 12.1 and 5.9 mm were obtained. CONCLUSION: Depending on PMT size and shape, the use of thicker scintillator crystals can substantially improve detector sensitivity at high gamma energies, while spatial resolution is slightly improved or mildly degraded compared to standard crystals.

Development of novel low-cost readout electronics for large field-of-view gamma camera detectors.

PURPOSE: Large scintillation crystals-based gamma cameras play a crucial role in nuclear medicine imaging. In this study, a large field-of-view (FOV) gamma detector consisting of 48 square PMTs developed using a new readout electronics, reducing 48 (6 × 8) analog signals to 14 (6 + 8) analog sums of each row and column, with reduced complexity and cost while preserving image quality. METHODS: All 14 analog signals were converted to digital signals using AD9257 high-speed analog to digital (ADC) converters driven by the SPARTAN-6 family of field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) in order to calculate the signal integrals. The positioning algorithm was based on the digital correlated signal enhancement (CSE) algorithm implemented in the acquisition software. The performance characteristics of the developed gamma camera were measured using the NEMA NU 1-2018 standards. RESULTS: The measured energy resolution of the developed detector was 8.7 % at 140 keV, with an intrinsic spatial resolution of 3.9 mm. The uniformity was within 0.6 %, while the linearity was within 0.1 %. CONCLUSION: The performance evaluation demonstrated that the developed detector has suitable specifications for high-end nuclear medicine imaging.

Impact of iodine contrast media on gamma camera-based GFR and factors affecting the difference between serum creatinine-based estimated GFR and Gate's GFR.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to elucidate the factors underlying the difference between estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) calculated from serum creatinine and Gate's GFR (gGFR) measured using technetium-99m diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid ( 99m Tc-DTPA) scintigraphy. METHODS: This study was based on consecutive patients who underwent 99m Tc-DTPA scintigraphy at our hospital between January 2021 and December 2022 and whose blood serum creatinine data were obtained on the same day as the 99m Tc-DTPA scintigraphy. Relationships between the ratio of gGFR and eGFR (gGFR/eGFR) and age, sex, BMI, visceral fat, psoas muscle index (PMI), serum blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine level were investigated based on 75 patients. Additionally, for 44 patients who had two or more follow-up DTPA studies, we compared gGFR values for studies that used iodine contrast media (ICM) for computed tomography before same-day 99m Tc-DTPA studies and those that did not in the same patients. RESULTS: Weak correlations were observed between gGFR/eGFR and PMI ( r  = 0.30), BMI ( r  = 0.24), and the visceral fat area ( r  = 0.33). Multi-regression analyses showed that gGFR/eGFR was correlated with PMI ( ß â€…= 0.34, P  < 0.01) and approached significance with the visceral fat area ( ß â€…= 0.24, P  = 0.05). A significant difference was observed in gGFR between patients who received ICM before the 99m Tc-DTPA renogram and those who did not ( P  < 0.001, eGFR 80.5 ±â€…19.0 vs. 91.7 ±â€…27.8 ml/min). CONCLUSION: ICM administration temporarily decreased gGFR, and increased muscle mass increased the difference between eGFR and gGFR values.

Kidney dynamic SPECT acquisition on a CZT swiveling-detector ring camera: an in vivo pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Large field of view CZT SPECT cameras with a ring geometry are available for some years now. Thanks to their good sensitivity and high temporal resolution, general dynamic SPECT imaging may be performed more easily, without resorting to dedicated systems. To evaluate the dynamic SPECT imaging by such cameras, we have performed an in vivo pilot study to analyze the kidney function of a pig and compare the results to standard dynamic planar imaging by a conventional gamma camera. METHODS: A 7-week-old (12 kg) female Landrace pig was injected with [99mTc]Tc-MAG3 and a 30 min dynamic SPECT acquisition of the kidneys was performed on a CZT ring camera. A fast SPECT/CT was acquired with the same camera immediately after the dynamic SPECT, without moving the pig, and used for attenuation correction and drawing regions of interest. The next day the same pig underwent a dynamic planar imaging of the kidneys by a conventional 2-head gamma camera. The dynamic SPECT acquisition was reconstructed using a MLEM algorithm with up to 20 iterations, with and without attenuation correction. Time-activity curves of the total counts of each kidney were extracted from 2D and 3D dynamic images. An adapted 2-compartment model was derived to fit the data points and extract physiological parameters. Comparison of these parameters was performed between the different reconstructions and acquisitions. RESULTS: Time-activity curves were nicely fitted with the 2-compartment model taking into account the anesthesia and bladder filling. Kidney physiological parameters were found in agreement with literature values. Good agreement of these parameters was obtained for the right kidney between dynamic SPECT and planar imaging. Regional analysis of the kidneys can be performed in the case of the dynamic SPECT imaging and provided good agreement with the whole kidney results. CONCLUSIONS: Dynamic SPECT imaging is feasible with CZT swiveling-detector ring cameras and provides results in agreement with dynamic planar imaging by conventional gamma cameras. Regional analysis of organs uptake and clearance becomes possible. Further studies are required regarding the optimization of acquisition and reconstruction parameters to improve image quality and enable absolute quantification.

Calibration of medical gamma cameras for estimation of internal contamination from137Cs.

Calibration of 22 gamma camera units was performed at 15 hospitals in southern and western Sweden to estimate137Cs contamination in humans in a supine static geometry, with a new developed calibration protocol and phantom. The minimum detectable activities (MDAs) and the estimated committed effective doses (CEDs) were calculated for each calibration. Generic calibration factors were calculated for five predetermined groups based on the detector type and manufacturer. Group 1 and 2 included NaI-based gamma cameras from General Electrics (GEs) with a crystal thickness of 5/8'' and 3/8'' respectively. Group 3 and 4 included NaI-based gamma cameras from Siemens Healthineers with a crystal thickness of 3/8'', with a similar energy window as the GE NaI-based cameras and a dual window respectively. Group 5 included semiconductor-based gamma cameras from GE with a CdZnTe (CZT) detector. The generic calibration factors were 60.0 cps kBq-1, 52.3 cps kBq-1, 50.3 cps kBq-1, 53.2 cps kBq-1and 48.4 cps kBq-1for group 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively. The MDAs ranged between 169 and 1130 Bq for all groups, with measurement times of 1-10 min, corresponding to a CED of 4.77-77.6µSv. A dead time analysis was performed for group 1 and suggested a dead time of 3.17µs for137Cs measurements. The dead time analysis showed that a maximum count rate of 232 kcps could be measured in the calibration geometry, corresponding to a CED of 108-263 mSv. It has been shown that semiconductor-based gamma cameras with CZT detectors are feasible for estimating137Cs contamination. The generic calibration factors derived in this study can be used for gamma cameras of the same models in other hospitals, for measurements in the same measurement geometry. This will increase the measurement capability for estimating internal137Cs contamination in the recovery phase following radiological or nuclear events.

A simple method to shorten the apparent dead time in the dosimetry of Lu-177 for targeted radionuclide therapy using a gamma camera.

BACKGROUND: The dead-time loss reportedly degrades the accuracy of dosimetry using a gamma camera for targeted radionuclide therapy with Lu-177; therefore, the dead-time loss needs to be corrected. However, the correction is challenging. In this study, we propose a novel and simple method to shorten the apparent dead time rather than correcting it through experiments and Monte Carlo simulations. METHODS: An energy window of 208 keV ± 10 % is generally used for the imaging of Lu-177. Lower-energy gamma photons and X-rays of Lu-177 do not contribute to image formation but lead to dead-time losses. In our proposed method, a thin lead sheet was used to shield gamma photons and X-rays with energies lower than 208 keV, while detecting 208 keV gamma photons that penetrated the thin sheet. We measured and simulated the energy spectra and count rate characteristics of a clinical gamma camera system using a cylindrical phantom filled with a Lu-177 solution. Lead sheets of 1.0- and 0.5-mm thicknesses were used as thin shields, and the dead-time losses in tumour imaging with consumed Lu-177 were simulated. RESULTS: The apparent dead times with lead sheets of 1.0- and 0.5-mm thicknesses and without a lead sheet were 1.7, 1.9, and 5.8 µs for an energy window of 208 keV ± 10 %, respectively. The dead-time losses could be reduced from 10 % to 1.3 % using the 1.0-mm thick lead sheet in the simulated imaging of tumour. CONCLUSION: Our method is promising in clinical situations and studies on Lu-177 dosimetry for tumours.

Practical Aspects of Nuclear Medicine Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt Evaluation.

The radionuclide ventriculoperitoneal shunt evaluation study is a simple test that involves injecting a small volume of radionuclide into the shunt reservoir and then observing its disappearance using dynamic γ-camera imaging. Although it seems simple, there are several potential pitfalls that can result in a misinterpreted or uninterpretable study. This paper is a detailed description of how to avoid the pitfalls and also how to interpret the results.

Estimating blurless and noise-free Ir-192 source images from gamma camera images for high-dose-rate brachytherapy using a deep-learning approach.

Objective. Precise monitoring of the position and dwell time of iridium-192 (Ir-192) during high-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy is crucial to avoid serious damage to normal tissues. Source imaging using a compact gamma camera is a potential approach for monitoring. However, images from the gamma camera are affected by blurring and statistical noise, which impact the accuracy of source position monitoring. This study aimed to develop a deep-learning approach for estimating ideal source images that reduce the effect of blurring and statistical noise from experimental images captured using a compact gamma camera.Approach. A double pix2pix model was trained using the simulated gamma camera images of an Ir-192 source. The first model was responsible for denoising the Ir-192 images, whereas the second model performed super resolution. Trained models were then applied to the experimental images to estimate the ideal images.Main results. At a distance of 100 mm between the compact gamma camera and the Ir-192 source, the difference in full width at half maximum (FWHM) between the estimated and actual source sizes was approximately 0.5 mm for a measurement time of 1.5 s. This difference has been improved from approximately 2.7 mm without the use of DL. Even with a measurement time of 0.1 s, the ideal images could be estimated as accurately as in the 1.5 s measurements. This method consistently achieved accurate estimations of the source images at any position within the field of view; however, the difference increased with the distance between the Ir-192 source and the compact gamma camera.Significance. The proposed method successfully provided estimated images from the experimental images within errors smaller than 0.5 mm at 100 mm. This method is promising for reducing blurring and statistical noise from the experimental images, enabling precise real-time monitoring of Ir-192 sources during HDR brachytherapy.

[Myocardial perfusion imaging and coronary artery disease : recent technological innovations]. / Comment j'explore. Innovations technologiques récentes en scintigraphie de perfusion myocardique et maladie coronarienne.

Cardiovascular diseases represent the first cause of mortality in the world. Various exploration methods exist to prevent and diagnose them. Among them, cardiac scintigraphy holds a predominant place. There are various equipments and procedures for its realization. We compared the practical aspects of using a conventional Anger camera (Symbia, Siemens) according to a two-days examination protocol with a dedicated cardio CzT camera (D-Spect, Spectrum Dynamics) according to a two-days protocol and a 360°SPECT/CT CzT camera (Veriton, Spectrum Dynamics) according to a one-day protocol. The use of CzT detectors allows a reduction of the activity injected to the patient and of the acquisition time in order to make this examination faster and less irradiating for the patient.

Les maladies cardiovasculaires représentent la première cause de mortalité dans le monde. Diverses méthodes d'exploration existent afin de les dépister et les diagnostiquer. Parmi elles, la scintigraphie cardiaque tient une place prépondérante. Il existe différents équipements et procédures pour sa réalisation. Nous avons comparé les aspects pratiques de la réalisation de l'examen avec une caméra d'Anger conventionnelle (Symbia, Siemens) selon un protocole d'examen en deux jours avec une caméra CzT cardio-dédiée (D-Spect, Spectrum Dynamics) selon un protocole en deux jours et une caméra 360°SPECT/CT CzT (Veriton, Spectrum Dynamics) selon un protocole en un jour. L'utilisation de détecteurs CzT permet une réduction de l'activité injectée au patient et des temps d'acquisition.

Monte Carlo and experimental evaluation of a Timepix4 compact gamma camera for coded aperture nuclear medicine imaging with depth resolution.

PURPOSE: We designed a prototype compact gamma camera (MediPROBE4) for nuclear medicine tasks, including radio-guided surgery and sentinel lymph node imaging with a 99mTc radiotracer. We performed Monte Carlo (MC) simulations for image performance assessment, and first spectroscopic imaging tests with a 300 µm thick silicon detector. METHODS: The hand-held camera (1 kg weight) is based on a Timepix4 readout circuit for photon-counting, energy-sensitive, hybrid pixel detectors (24.6 × 28.2 mm2 sensitive area, 55 µm pixel pitch), developed by the Medipix4 Collaboration. The camera design adopts a CdTe detector (1 or 2 mm thick) bump-bonded to a Timepix4 readout chip and a coded aperture collimator with 0.25 mm diameter round holes made of 3D printed 1-mm thick tungsten. Image reconstruction is performed via autocorrelation deconvolution. RESULTS: Geant4 MC simulations showed that, for a 99mTc source in air, at 50 mm source-collimator distance, the estimated collimator sensitivity (4 × 10-4) is 292 times larger than that of a single hole in the mask; the system sensitivity is 0.22 cps/kBq (2 mm CdTe); the lateral spatial resolution is 1.7 mm FWHM. The estimated axial longitudinal resolution is 8.2 mm FWHM at 40 mm distance. First experimental tests with a 300 µm thick Silicon pixel detector bump-bonded to a Timepix4 chip and a high-resolution coded aperture collimator showed time-over-threshold and time-of-arrival capabilities with 241Am and 133Ba gamma-ray sources. CONCLUSIONS: MC simulations and validation lab tests showed the expected performance of the MediPROBE4 compact gamma camera for gamma-ray 3D imaging.

Evaluation of sentinel lymph node localization in malignant melanoma by preoperative semiconductor gamma camera and planar lymphoscintigraphy.

INTRODUCTION: Performing lymphoscintigraphy in a separate room, frees up the conventional gamma camera, coupled with the desire to directly localize sentinel lymph nodes (SLN) in the operating theatre has led to the development of high-resolution semiconductor-detector based handheld gamma-cameras, CrystalCam. METHODS: This work consists of phantom and clinical studies. For the first part, a Jaszczak phantom with hollow spheres of various volumes were filled with the 99m Tc and the camera's sensitivity was measured at various distances to assess the possibilities and limitations of the device. The clinical study evaluates the effectiveness of CrystalCam in localizing SLN in 40 consecutive malignant melanoma patients compared to both conventional planar lymphoscintigraphy and hybrid SPECT/CT. SLNs detected by planar lymphoscintigraphy were marked on the patients' skin using a UV-marker. CrystalCam images were acquired in another room by another examiner and the SLNs were marked with a felt pen. The detected nodes by both camera systems were evaluated using UV-lamp and normal light to visualize the UV- and felt pen marks respectively. The concordance rate of the SLNs and higher-echelon nodes localized by both planar scintigraphy and CrystalCam imaging with respect to the total SLNs and higher-echelon nodes detected by SPECT/CT imaging are compared and statistically analyzed. RESULTS: The results of the phantom study show a good correlation between activity and count-rates for all distancesSPECT/CT, CrystalCamm, and planar lymphoscintigraphy detected 69, 58, and 61 SLNs respectively. The concordance rate of 95.65% by the CrystalCam and planar scintigraphy implies both cameras are statistically coequal in preoperative SLN detection of malignant melanoma. For the higher-echelon nodes, SPECT/CT, planar and CrystalCam imaging systems identified 82, 48, and 13 respectively; thus, CrystalCam was statistically inferior to planar imaging. CONCLUSION: The handheld CrystalCam is a reliable instrument for localizing SLNs in surgical centers without an on-site nuclear medicine department.

Comparison of Whole-Body Dosimetry Measurements in 131I Therapy Using Ceiling-Mounted Geiger-Müller Detectors and γ-Camera Scans: An Agreement Analysis.

Background: In 131I therapies internal dosimetry is crucial for determining the mean absorbed dose to organs at risk, particularly the bone marrow, which has a dose constraint of 2 Gy. Traditionally, multicompartmental models have been used for bone marrow dosimetry, necessitating whole-body absorbed-dose assessments. However, noninvasive techniques, such as γ-camera scans or ceiling-mounted Geiger-Müller (GM) counters, can estimate the aforementioned. This study was aimed to evaluate the agreement between whole-body mean absorbed dose using γ-camera scans and ceiling-mounted GM in patients with thyroid carcinoma undergoing 131I therapy. Methods: This study included 31 patients with thyroid cancer who were treated with 131I. The whole-body time-integrated activity (TIA) and mean absorbed dose were estimated using the elimination curves obtained with γ-camera scans and ceiling-mounted GM. In addition, statistical analysis was performed on the data to determine the Coefficient Correlation Coefficient and the Bland-Altman limits of agreement for both parameters, as well as for the elimination curves' effective half-life. Results: The study revealed correlations of 0.562 and 0.586 between whole-body TIA and mean absorbed dose, respectively. The Bland-Altman limits of agreement were found to be below -3.75% and within 12.75% of the bone marrow dose constraint of 2 Gy. The nonparametric evaluation revealed that whole-body TIA and mean absorbed dose medians from GM were lower than those from γ-camera scans (p < 0.001). Effective half-life estimation mean was significantly lower in the GM than in the γ-camera of 13 and 23 h. Conclusions: Although GM calculates the whole-body absorbed dose with margins of error within clinical acceptance, underestimation of the effective half-life makes it an unacceptable substitute method for γ-cameras in clinical practice. Further research should be conducted to evaluate single-point GM measurement substitutions in time-activity curves.

Hybrid imaging of prompt x-rays and induced positrons using a pinhole gamma camera during and after irradiation of protons.

Objective. Prompt x-ray imaging using a low-energy x-ray camera is a promising method for observing a proton beam's shape from outside the subject. Furthermore, imaging of positrons produced by nuclear reactions with protons is a possible method for observing the beam shape. However, it has not been possible to measure these two types of images with a single imaging system due to the limited imaging capability of existing systems. Imaging of both prompt x-rays and the distribution of positrons may compensate for the shortcomings of each method.Approach. We conducted imaging of the prompt x-ray using a pinhole x-ray camera during irradiation with protons in list mode. Then, after irradiation with protons, imaging of annihilation radiations from the produced positrons was conducted using the same pinhole x-ray camera in list mode. After this imaging, list-mode data were sorted to obtain prompt x-ray images and positron images.Main results. With the proposed procedure, we could measure both prompt x-ray images and induced positron images with a single irradiation by a proton beam. From the prompt x-ray images, ranges and widths of the proton beams could be estimated. The distributions of positrons were slightly wider than those of the prompt x-rays. From the time sequential positron images, we could derive the time activity curves of the produced positrons.Significance. Hybrid imaging of prompt x-rays and induced positrons using a pinhole x-ray camera was achieved. The proposed procedure would be useful for measuring prompt x-ray images during irradiation to estimate the beam structures as well as for measuring the induced positron images after irradiation to estimate the distributions and time activity curves of the induced positrons.

Analytical modeling and Monte Carlo simulations of multi-parallel slit and knife-edge slit prompt gamma cameras.

Purpose.Present and validate an analytical model (AM) to calculate efficiency and spatial resolution of multi-parallel slit (MPS) and knife-edge slit (KES) cameras in the context of prompt gamma (PG) imaging in proton therapy, as well as perform a fair comparison between two prototypes of these cameras with their design specifications.Materials and methods.Monte Carlo (MC) simulations with perfect (ideal) conditions were performed to validate the proposed AM, as well as simulations in realistic conditions for the comparison of both prototypes. The spatial resolution obtained from simulations was derived from reconstructed PG profiles. The falloff retrieval precision (FRP) was quantified based on the variability of PG profiles from 50 different realizations.Results.The AM shows that KES and MPS designs fulfilling 'MPS-KES similar conditions' should have very close actual performances if the KES slit width corresponds to the half of the MPS slit width. Reconstructed PG profiles from simulated data with both cameras were used to compute the efficiency and spatial resolutions to compare against the model predictions. The FRP of both cameras was calculated with realistic detection conditions for beams with 107, 108and 109incident protons. A good agreement was found between the values predicted by the AM and those obtained from MC simulations (relative deviations of the order of 5%).Conclusion.The MPS camera outperforms the KES camera with their design specifications in realistic conditions and both systems can reach millimetric precision in the determination of the falloff position with 108or more initial protons.

Diagnostic accuracy for CZT gamma camera compared to conventional gamma camera technique with myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography: Assessment of myocardial infarction and function.

BACKGROUND: The solid-state cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) gamma camera for myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography (MPS) has theoretical advantages compared to the conventional gamma camera technique. This includes more sensitive detectors and better energy resolution. We aimed to explore the diagnostic performance of gated MPS with a CZT gamma camera compared to a conventional gamma camera for detection of myocardial infarct (MI) and assessment of left ventricular (LV) volumes and ejection fraction (LVEF), using cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) as the reference method. METHODS: Seventy-three patients (26% female) with known or suspected chronic coronary syndrome were examined with gated MPS using both a CZT gamma camera and a conventional gamma camera as well as with CMR. Presence and extent of MI on MPS and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) CMR was evaluated. For LV volumes, LVEF and LV mass, gated MPS images and cine CMR images were evaluated. RESULTS: MI was found in 42 patients on CMR. The overall sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values for the CZT and the conventional gamma camera were the same (67%, 100%, 100% and 69%). For infarct size > 3% on CMR, the sensitivity was 82% for the CZT and 73% for the conventional gamma camera, respectively. LV volumes were significantly underestimated by MPS compared to CMR (P ≤ .002 for all measures). The underestimation was slightly less pronounced for the CZT compared to the conventional gamma camera (2-10 mL, P ≤ .03 for all measures). For LVEF, however, accuracy was high for both gamma cameras. CONCLUSION: Differences between a CZT and a conventional gamma camera for detection of MI and assessment of LV volumes and LVEF are small and do not appear to be clinically significant.

Clinical impact of molecular breast imaging as adjunct diagnostic modality in evaluation of indeterminate breast abnormalities and unresolved diagnostic concerns.

PURPOSE: Improvements in molecular breast imaging (MBI) have increased the use of MBI as adjunct diagnostic modality and alternative to MRI. We aimed to assess the value of MBI in patients with equivocal breast lesions on conventional imaging, especially in terms of its ability to rule out malignancy. METHODS: We selected patients who underwent MBI in addition to conventional diagnostics due to equivocal breast lesions between 2012 and 2015. All patients underwent digital mammography, target ultrasound and MBI. MBI was performed using a single-head Dilon 6800 gamma camera after administration of 600 MBq 99m Tc-sestamibi. Imaging was reported according to BI-RADS classification and compared with pathology or follow-up of ≥6 months. RESULTS: Of 226 women included, pathology was obtained in 106 (47%) and (pre)malignant lesions were found in 25 (11%). Median follow-up was 5.4 years (IQR 3.9-7.1). Sensitivity was higher for MBI compared to conventional diagnostics (84% vs. 32%; P = 0.002), identifying malignancy in 21 and 6 patients, respectively, but specificity did not differ (86% vs. 81%; P = 0.161). Positive and negative predictive value were 43% and 98% for MBI and 17% and 91% for conventional diagnostics. MBI was discordant with conventional diagnostics in 68 (30%) patients and correctly changed diagnosis in 46 (20%) patients, identifying 15 malignant lesions. In subgroups with nipple discharge ( N = 42) and BI-RADS 3 lesions ( N = 113) MBI detected 7 of 8 occult malignancies. CONCLUSION: MBI correctly adjusted treatment in 20% of patients with diagnostic concerns after conventional work-up, and could rule out malignancy with a high negative predictive value of 98%.

Medical gamma cameras in radiological emergency preparedness: determination of calibration factors and MDA for the GE Discovery NM/CT 670 Pro.

A survey was performed of the available gamma camera models and whole-body counters (WBCs) in Sweden, revealing that there are about 75 gamma cameras and 15 WBCs currently in operation in Sweden. One of the most common gamma camera models (GE Discovery NM/CT 670 Pro), with the collimators removed, was calibrated for152Eu,137Cs,60Co and40K in three different measurement geometries (supine, close-up sitting and distant sitting) for six different phantom sizes (12-110 kg). Minimum detectable activities (MDAs) were calculated for the gamma camera and a typical WBC, both at the Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Gothenburg, Sweden. An energy window of 30-510 keV was used to calibrate the gamma camera. The calibration factors for this gamma camera for supine and close-up sitting geometry, including all phantom sizes, were 138-208 cps kBq-1for152Eu, 63-83 cps kBq-1for137Cs and 99-126 cps kBq-1for60Co; the MDAs were 50-73 Bq for152Eu, 125-198 Bq for137Cs and 83-105 Bq for60Co. The International Commission on Radiological Protection dose coefficients for members of the public were used to calculate the committed effective doses (CEDs) corresponding to the MDAs, showing that CEDs down to a fewµSv can be estimated with this gamma camera for the inhalation of aerosols of absorption type M. The distant sitting geometry was used to enable the estimation of higher contamination levels, and a hypothetical maximum CED was calculated. This was shown to be 256-2000 mSv, depending on the radionuclide and phantom size. However, further investigations are needed into the dead time losses for higher activity levels for the radionuclides studied. The results show that the use of gamma cameras for radiological triage and, in some cases, to estimate the internal activity of relevant radionuclides in radiological and nuclear events, is feasible.

A Wide Energy Range and 4π-View Gamma Camera with Interspaced Position-Sensitive Scintillator Array and Embedded Heavy Metal Bars.

(1) Background: Gamma cameras have wide applications in industry, including nuclear power plant monitoring, emergency response, and homeland security. The desirable properties of a gamma camera include small weight, good resolution, large field of view (FOV), and wide imageable source energy range. Compton cameras can have a 4π FOV but have limited sensitivity at low energy. Coded-aperture gamma cameras are operatable at a wide photon energy range but typically have a limited FOV and increased weight due to the thick heavy metal collimators and shielding. In our lab, we previously proposed a 4π-view gamma imaging approach with a 3D position-sensitive detector, with which each detector element acts as the collimator for other detector elements. We presented promising imaging performance for 99mTc, 18F, and 137Cs sources. However, the imaging performance for middle- and high-energy sources requires further improvement. (2) Methods: In this study, we present a new gamma camera design to achieve satisfactory imaging performance in a wide gamma energy range. The proposed gamma camera consists of interspaced bar-shaped GAGG (Ce) crystals and tungsten absorbers. The metal bars enhance collimation for high-energy gamma photons without sacrificing the FOV. We assembled a gamma camera prototype and conducted experiments to evaluate the gamma camera's performance for imaging 57Co, 137Cs, and 60Co point sources. (3) Results: Results show that the proposed gamma camera achieves a positioning accuracy of <3° for all gamma energies. It can clearly resolve two 137Cs point sources with 10° separation, two 57Co and two 60Co point sources with 20° separation, as well as a 2 × 3 137Cs point-source array with 20° separation. (4) Conclusions: We conclude that the proposed gamma camera design has comprehensive merits, including portability, 4π-view FOV, and good angular resolution across a wide energy range. The presented approach has promising potential in nuclear security applications.