Perspectives from military neonatal transport: past, present, and future.

This article traces the historical development of neonatal transport, from ancient Greek mythology to the modern era, with a particular focus on the contributions of U.S. military aviation. The narrative begins with early efforts in thermoregulation through stationary incubators and progresses to the pivotal role of aerial hospitals during World War II. Post-WWII, the establishment of neonatal transport services in New York and advancements in incubator technology set the stage for further innovation. The U.S. military's involvement in neonatal transport, initiated in the 1970s, witnessed significant milestones, including the adaptation of ECMO technology for air transport. The narrative unfolds through the lens of U.S. military neonatology in the Western Pacific, particularly at Clark Air Base. The article concludes with insights into the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command's neonatal transport mission, highlighting challenges faced during the SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 pandemic and the development of specialized infection containment transport systems.

Tropicalizing the Portable Radio: Electronics and the U.S. Military's Battle against Fungi in the Pacific War.

As the U.S. military became embroiled in "jungle warfare" across the Pacific during World War II, it was caught off guard by the rapid deterioration of materials and equipment in the tropics, where the air was hot, humid, and teeming with fungal spores. This article tells the story of how American scientists and engineers understood the "tropical deterioration" of portable radios and electronics and developed techniques to counteract it. Examining scientific efforts to prevent tropical decay reveals how exposure to tropical conditions during World War II shaped the development of portable electronics. Contributing to envirotech history and environmental media studies, this article uncovers the importance of climate proofing to the history of electronics miniaturization. Tropical deterioration, furthermore, provides a technology-focused lens for enriching our historical understanding of the tropics as an environmental imaginary.

How to Design a (Cybernetic) Revolution: Chileans Remember Salvador Allende's Techno-Utopian Project.

The recent commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet offered an opportunity to explore unknown aspects of daily life before and during the dictatorship. This essay focuses on one particular exhibition (How to Design a Revolution: The Chilean Road to Design), which featured a complete reconstruction of the Cybersyn operation room. Based on participant observation, the essay argues that the interaction between visitors and the re-creation in such a particular moment is an invitation to reflect on how technology, socialism, and democracy sought to reinforce each other during the Cold War. The Cybersyn project, one of the most globally recognizable pieces of technology designed in the Global South, still resonates five decades after its implementation (and further destruction by the military), prompting new questions in an era of artificial intelligence and new threats to democracy.

Prisoner, Sailor, Soldier, Spy: Hobbes on Coercion and Consent.

This article examines Thomas Hobbes's notorious claim that "fear and liberty are consistent" and therefore that agreements coerced by threat of violence are binding. This view is to a surprising extent inherited from Aristotle, but its political implications became especially striking in the wake of the English Civil War, and Hobbes recast his theory in far-reaching ways between his early works and Leviathan to accommodate it. I argue that Hobbes's account of coercion is both philosophically safe from the most common objections to it and politically superior to the seemingly commonsensical alternatives that we have inherited from Hobbes's critics.

Unravelling social status in the first medieval military order of the Iberian Peninsula using isotope analysis.

Medieval Iberia witnessed the complex negotiation of religious, social, and economic identities, including the formation of religious orders that played a major role in border disputes and conflicts. While archival records provide insights into the compositions of these orders, there have been few direct dietary or osteoarchaeological studies to date. Here, we analysed 25 individuals discovered at the Zorita de los Canes Castle church cemetery, Guadalajara, Spain, where members of one of the first religious orders, the Order of Calatrava knights, were buried between the 12th to 15th centuries CE. Stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analyses of bone collagen reveal dietary patterns typical of the Medieval social elite, with the Bayesian R model, 'Simmr' suggesting a diet rich in poultry and marine fish in this inland population. Social comparisons and statistical analyses further support the idea that the order predominantly comprised the lower nobility and urban elite in agreement with historical sources. Our study suggests that while the cemetery primarily served the order's elite, the presence of individuals with diverse dietary patterns may indicate complexities of temporal use or wider social interaction of the medieval military order.

Analysis of Greek prehistoric combat in full body armour based on physiological principles: A series of studies using thematic analysis, human experiments, and numerical simulations.

One of the oldest complete suits of European armour was discovered in 1960 near the village of Dendra, in Southern Greece, but it remained unknown whether this armour was suitable for extended use in battle or was purely ceremonial. This had limited our understanding of the ancient Greek-Late Bronze Age-warfare and its consequences that have underpinned the social transformations of prehistoric Europe and Eastern Mediterranean. In a series of archeo-physiological studies, merging knowledge in archaeology, history, human physiology, and numerical simulation, we provide supporting evidence that the Mycenaean armour found at Dendra was entirely compatible with use in extended combat, and we provide a free software enabling simulation of Late Bronze Age warfare. A group of special armed-forces personnel wearing a replica of the Dendra armour were able to complete an 11-hour simulated Late Bronze Age combat protocol that we developed from a series of studies based on the available evidence. Numerical simulation of the thermal exchanges in Late Bronze Age warfare extended this conclusion across different environmental conditions and fighting intensities. Our results support the notion that the Mycenaeans had such a powerful impact in Eastern Mediterranean at least partly as a result of their armour technology.

Contemporary History of Spine Fractures Following Deck-Slap Injury: From Deck Blast During World War II Naval Battles to Axial Trauma During Touristic Speedboat Sea Cruise in 21st Century.

In large-scale naval battles during World War II, sailors sometimes sustained serious lower limb injuries when explosion blast of sea mines was transmitted from underneath through the metal deck of the ships. Some of these sailors were thrown in the air due to the blast and sustained axial trauma of the spine when they landed on the hard deck, which was thus called a deck slap by Captain Joseph Barr in 1946, among others. Nowadays, this peculiar mechanism has shifted to the civilian setting. Tourists unaware of the danger may sustain spine compression fractures when they sit at the bow of speed boats while underway on a calm sea. When the craft unexpectedly crosses the wake of another ship, tourists are thrown a few feet in the air before suffering a hard landing on their buttocks. This historical vignette is presented as a preventive message to help to reduce this poorly known yet avoidable "summer wave of vertebral fractures."

Coronel (SM-M) Doctor Waldemar Vanini Perrone: segundo Director Técnico del Servicio de Sanidad Militar (1974 - 1978) / Colonel (SM-M) Dr. Waldemar Vanini Perrone: second Technical Director of the Military Health Service (1974 - 1978) / Coronel (SM-M) Dr. Waldemar Vanini Perrone: segundo Diretor Técnico do Serviço de Saúde Militar (1974 - 1978)

El 23 de diciembre de 1918 se creó por ley el Servicio de Sanidad del Ejército y la Armada, dependencia del Ministerio respectivo y remoto antecedente de la actual Dirección Nacional de Sanidad de las Fuerzas Armadas de Uruguay. Un Director General con título médico fue designado como jerarca del nuevo Servicio y presidente de su Consejo de Administración. Fue asimilado al grado militar acorde con su jerarquía administrativa: coronel. Mientras la dirección general estuvo a cargo de médicos, éstos fueron designados por ley como Directores Científicos de Sanidad Militar. El Director General Científico tuvo amplísimas atribuciones técnicas y administrativas: reglamentación de los servicios a crearse; representación de la institución; superintendencia técnica de todos los establecimientos; propuesta de nombramientos; asesoramiento del ministerio respectivo; remoción y propuesta de destituciones. El primer Director General de Sanidad fue el médico Francisco Fernández Enciso (1878-1925) quien ejerció el cargo entre 1918 y 1920. Y el último, el médico Guillermo Rodríguez Guerrero, entre 1948 y 1953. Desde entonces, y en forma definitiva, la dirección general quedó a cargo de militares de carrera, pero no médicos, asistidos de un Consejo Técnico Consultivo por médicos del hospital central. El 24 de abril de 1962, se insertó en la Orden del Servicio de Sanidad el nombramiento del coronel médico Hugo Brugnini como Subdirector del Servicio e Inspector General de Servicios de Sanidad. De acuerdo a esta documentación, la Subdirección Técnica del Servicio de Sanidad Militar se inició en 1962 y su primer titular fue el médico Hugo Brugnini. Desde entonces se han nombrado numerosos profesionales para ocupar el cargo de subdirección o lisa y llanamente dirección técnica. Quien sucedió al doctor Brugnini fue el coronel médico Waldemar Vanini, nacido en Montevideo el 16 de febrero de 1924 y fallecido en 1979 en la misma ciudad a la edad de 55 años.

Honores a Sir Ernest Shackleton en Sanidad Militar / Honors to Sir Ernest Shackleton in Military Health / Honras a Sir Ernest Shackleton em Saúde Militar

Ernest Shackleton ha sido en la historia, un personaje que dejó huella como ejemplo de resiliencia y liderazgo. En 1914 realizó como jefe de expedición su segundo viaje antártico, frustrado por el hundimiento de su buque insignia. La operación de rescate del grueso de la tripulación varada en el continente más meridional lo llevó a recalar en Montevideo. Desde este puerto partió el buque Instituto de Pesca N°1, con tripulación de Uruguay y Shackleton incluido, no logrando completar el salvamento. De esta acción nació el aprecio hacia la persona del explorador por parte del gobierno de la República. En su postrer travesía, ya fallecido llegó a las Islas Georgia del Sur y a su cuerpo se le realizó un proceso de conservación para ser traído a nuestro país y continuar viaje al puerto de origen en Inglaterra. Es en esa circunstancia que el gobierno del doctor Baltasar Brum solicitó a la Comisión Permanente del Parlamento, se le rindieran honores fúnebres de Ministro de Estado. El embalsamado del cuerpo fue realizado el 30 de enero de 1922, por parte de personal médico y técnico del Hospital Militar, así como los honores que le rindieron por el Servicio de Sanidad del Ejército y la Armada.

Ernest Shackleton has been in history, a character who left his mark as an example of resilience and leadership. In 1914, as expedition leader, he made his second Antarctic voyage, frustrated by the sinking of his flagship. The operation to rescue the bulk of the crew stranded on the southernmost continent led him to Montevideo. The Instituto de Pesca N°1, with Uruguayan crew and Shackleton included, departed from this port, but was unable to complete the rescue. From this action was born the appreciation of the explorer by the government of the Republic. In his last voyage, when he died, he reached the South Georgia Islands and his body underwent a preservation process to be brought to our country and continue his voyage to the port of origin in England. It is in this circumstance that the government of Dr. Baltasar Brum requested the Permanent Commission of the Parliament to pay him the funeral honors of a Minister of State. The embalming of the body was carried out on January 30, 1922, by medical and technical personnel of the Military Hospital, as well as the honors rendered by the Army and Navy Health Service.

Ernest Shackleton deixou sua marca na história como um exemplo de resiliência e liderança. Em 1914, ele fez sua segunda viagem à Antártica como líder da expedição, frustrado pelo naufrágio de seu navio principal. A operação para resgatar a maior parte da tripulação encalhada no continente mais ao sul o levou a Montevidéu. O Instituto de Pesca N°1, com tripulação do Uruguai e Shackleton incluído, partiu desse porto, mas não conseguiu concluir o resgate. Essa ação deu origem ao reconhecimento do explorador pelo governo da República. Em sua última viagem, quando morreu, chegou às Ilhas Geórgia do Sul e seu corpo foi preservado para que pudesse ser trazido ao nosso país e continuar sua viagem até o porto de origem na Inglaterra. Foi nessa circunstância que o governo do Dr. Baltasar Brum solicitou ao Comitê Permanente do Parlamento que lhe prestasse as honras fúnebres de um Ministro de Estado. O embalsamamento do corpo foi realizado em 30 de janeiro de 1922, pela equipe médica e técnica do Hospital Militar, bem como as honras prestadas a ele pelo Serviço de Saúde do Exército e da Marinha.

Chemical 'canaries': Munitions workers in the First World War.

In the early twentieth century, scientific innovations permanently changed international warfare. As chemicals traveled out of laboratories into factories and military locations, war became waged at home as well as overseas. Large numbers of women were employed in munitions factories during the First World War, but their public memories have been overshadowed by men who died on battlefields abroad; they have also been ignored in traditional histories of chemistry that focus on laboratory-based research. Mostly young and poorly educated, but crucial for Britain's military success, these female workers were subjected to procedures of social regulation and consigned to carrying out dangerous chemical procedures causing chronic illness or death; in particular, when TNT died their skin yellow, they were colloquially known as 'canaries.'

Professor George Archibald Grant Mitchell (1906-1993): his work with penicillin during World War II.

George Archibald Grant Mitchell, OBE, TD, MB, ChB, ChM, MSc, DSc, FRCS (1906-1993) was a professor of anatomy at the University of Manchester from 1946 to 1973. He is mainly remembered for his research in neuroanatomy, especially of the autonomic nervous system. He studied medicine at the Aberdeen University, and after qualifying in 1929 he held posts in surgery and anatomy and worked as a surgeon in the Highlands. In 1939, he joined the Royal Army Medical Corps. He was based in Egypt and the Middle East, where he carried out trials of sulphonamides and penicillin on wounded soldiers; in 1943, he returned to England as Adviser in Penicillin Therapy for 21 Army Group, preparing for the invasion of Europe.

William Taylor, Peninsular War surgeon and deputy inspector of hospitals at Waterloo.

William Taylor was a British army surgeon remembered for his role as deputy inspector of hospitals (DIH) at Waterloo serving under Sir James Grant MD (1778-1852). No biography of Taylor exists beyond his entry in Drew's records of commissioned officers in the medical services of the British Army. Taylor appears to have been a Scotsman and is first noted as a hospital mate in 1795. He joined the 10th Royal Dragoons (Hussars from 1806) as an assistant surgeon in 1797. He is recorded at Guildford (1800) and Brighton (1803). He was made surgeon in August 1803. A further reference to Taylor, deduced from the title of "regimental surgeon," is documented at Lewes, Sussex, in 1808. Taylor served with the 10th Hussars in the Peninsular and Challis' roll call records his service at the Battles of Sahagún (21 December 1808) and Benavente (29 December 1808). Taylor was transferred to the staff on 20 June 1811 and made DIH on 25 July 1811. He was put on half-pay before being reinstated for Waterloo. Taylor retired on half-pay in February 1816 and died at Turnham Green on 9 January 1820. His Waterloo medal was sold in 2006.

Psychiatric Casualties during the Korean War: Focusing on American and Common Wealth Soldiers.

A crucial gap in the medical history of the Korean War is the history of psychiatry during the Korean War. War puts those who participate in it through physical and mental extremes, inflicting not only physical injuries but also psychological trauma and damage. However, studies of the medical aspects of the Korean War have been limited to topics related to physical injuries and their treatment, and there are no studies that systematically summarize the traumatic effects on the human mind thrown into the midst of the war, the consequences of these effects, and the medical efforts made to deal with these problems. As the Korean War was fought only five years after the end of the Second World War, the experiences and achievements of the Second World War were used in the Korean War. In terms of personnel, many of the soldiers who fought in the Second World War also fought in the Korean War. This continuity with the Second World War had both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side, treatment and transport systems were quickly put in place to respond to the large numbers of soldiers with psychiatric problems on the front lines early in the war. This is an example of a positive use of the legacy of the Second World War. On the other hand, the negative side of the coin was the much higher frequency of psychiatric symptoms among veterans of the Second World War. This could be explained by the fact that the psychological trauma experienced on the battlefield during the Second World War remained latent and was reactivated in the Korean War as a kind of conditioned reflex. In addition, the brainwashing of prisoners of war and their subsequent psychological problems are also characteristic of the Korean War in the context of the Cold War. These psychiatric features of the Korean War will provide a useful historical example for understanding and helping those who are inevitably involved in war and suffer from mental distress.

Manning the Torpedo Boats: How Gendered Insecurities Shaped Naval War in the United States and Britain, 1860-1900.

Applying a gendered lens to the torpedo boat's adoption (ca. 1860-1900) in the United States and Britain, this article explores the cultural dynamics of military innovation. In the nineteenth century, armored or "ironclad" warships disrupted the ideals of elite "naval manhood": an emphasis inherited from preindustrial officers on physical bravery, seamanship, and endurance. In response, a group of Anglo-American officials, artists, and authors repurposed the torpedo boat to prop up masculine heroism under threat from technical shifts. Ironically, it was a radical technology that preserved old values. This nostalgic effort explains how, in under a generation, the torpedo morphed from an "unchivalrous" weapon into an attractive investment. By refashioning cultural representations of the torpedo boat, advocates both insulated elite "naval manhood" from industrialization and upended modern naval force structures. The adoption of the torpedo boat was as much a gendered reaction to the ironclad revolution as a tactical calculation.

History of US Army Whole Blood on the Battlefield.

Brigadier General Douglas Kendrick warned in his seminal work on the blood program of the Second World War, "It was only by the strictest attention to such matters that blood was able to achieve its miracles, and, equally important, was prevented from becoming a deadly agent. It must never be forgotten that without proper care, blood can be lethal." His point lay in the details offered. It was only by adherence to attention to detail in procurement, storage, and delivery the miraculous powers of blood can be achieved. Throughout his historical documentation, the requirement for special training of personnel handling blood was emphasized and documented. Deviating from prescribed storage temperatures, rough handling, exceeding shelf life, improperly matching blood types, and contaminating the blood are some of the various improper care that produce a negative patient outcome. Bacterial infection, toxicity, hypoxemia, and antibodies in the blood are just a few examples and could ultimately lead to death. This article focuses on the means of this miracle in briefly telling the story of whole blood on the battlefield by the US Army.

[Takaki Kanehiro and the diet experiments of beriberi in navy in modern Japan].

Beriberi is a disease caused by insufficiency vitamin B1 in the body which, if untreated, can cause death. It was the disease with the highest incidence in the Japanese army during the Meiji and Taisho Periods. It was treated with a variety of therapeutic treatments by the Navy and the Army respectively, based on the different therapy systems of Britain and Germany at the time, with an argument about these treatments lasting more than half a century. Eventually, the Navy experimented with dietary modification for beriberi, according to Takagi Kanehiro, successfully reducing beriberi incidence to zero. This rewrote the epidemic history of beriberi in the Japanese Navy.

Australian medical imaging and world war one.

Twenty years after the birth of medical imaging from Röntgen's 1895 discovery, military authorities understood the advantage of visualising injuries of wounded soldiers and monitoring their treatment. In World War One, medical imaging equipment was difficult to use and had to be operated in challenging environments. The most common use of x-rays was the imaging of metallic foreign bodies such as bullets and shrapnel lodged within a soldier's body. The need to diagnose, manage war injuries and return soldiers to battle, led to medical imaging innovations including alternate means to record an image, better x-ray tubes and an early form of tomography. Such technological advancements were made by scientists serving their respective countries. With information sourced from the Australian War Memorial archives, this paper also focusses on the experiences of an Australian wartime radiographer. This investigation demonstrates the importance, sacrifice and skills of men and women who took on the difficult task of medical imaging in the first truly world-based conflict. It highlights how a new profession and associated technology emerged as an important tool in military medicine. Importantly, our profession's history within the context of military history should be preserved, while also honouring the legacy of individuals who contributed.

The Wales Endoscope: The First American Cystoscope.

INTRODUCTION: Philipp Bozzini, a German army surgeon, in 1807 invented the Lichtleiter, the predecessor of the modern cystoscope. By the mid-1800s, several new instruments were created including one, a variation on Bozzini's instrument by Antoine Desormeaux in Paris. The William P. Didusch Museum of Urologic History acquired the Wales endoscope, a rare and unique cystoscope that was invented around the same time in the United States. METHODS: We researched the life of Philip Wales and the description of his cystoscope as well as Horatio Kern, the instrument maker that produced Wales' instrument. We examined the Wales cystoscope acquired by the William P. Didusch Museum. RESULTS: Philip Skinner Wales (1837-1906) was a surgeon who entered the United States Navy in 1856 and served throughout the Civil War. He organized and held charge of the Naval Hospital at New Orleans during the operations of Admiral Farragut's fleet in the Mississippi River. He was one of the first surgeons to attend President Garfield when he was shot. He was Surgeon General of the Navy (1879-1884) and founded the Museum of Naval Hygiene in Washington D.C. which later, combined with the naval laboratory and Department of Instruction, became the prototype of the Naval Medical School. In 1868 he published a series of papers in the Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Reporter on "Instrumental Diagnosis," with a paper entitled "Description of a New Endoscope." The instrument contained a metal shaft with an acute beak and used an ophthalmologic mirror to reflect light down the channel. The surgeon peered through the center hole to look into the bladder. Wales used his instrument multiple times in his private practice. Wales writes that the advantages of his cystoscope were that it was simple to produce and cheap compared to Desormeaux's endoscope. Furthermore it was light, weighing approximately 2 pounds. The main drawbacks of Wales' cystoscope were the inadequate illumination, as the light source was external and projected from the outside through a narrow channel into the bladder, and that without an optical system the image appeared relatively small. Horatio Kern, a well-known instrument maker in Philadelphia, that also supplied surgical sets and instruments for the U.S. Army during the Civil War, produced Wales' cystoscope. While he was Chief of the Bureau of Medicine, a subordinate embezzled Navy funds and Dr, Wales was court-martialed. Though he was eventually exonerated, he lived the rest of his life in disgrace in France. CONCLUSION: The Wales endoscope is unique in that it had an American inventor, was simple in design and cheap to produce. It is an important historical artifact and is one of the earliest and rarest cystoscopes developed.

Teniente Coronel Médico Profesor Agregado de Cirugía Edgardo Torterolo Prado (1939 ­ 2003), precursor del trasplante hepático en Uruguay / Lieutenant Colonel Medical Attaché Professor of Surgery Edgardo Torterolo Prado (1939 - 2003), precursor of liver transplantation in Uruguay / Tenente Coronel Médico Adido Professor de Cirurgia Edgardo Torterolo Prado (1939 - 2003), precursor do transplante de fígado no Uruguai

Edgardo Gualberto Torterolo Prado, nació en Montevideo el 20 de diciembre de 1939 y falleció en esa ciudad, en la plenitud de su ejercicio profesional, el 31 de julio de 2003. Fueron sus padres Pío Gualberto Torterolo y María Rosaura Prado. Estaba unido en matrimonio con María Elena Minetti (1966) del cual nació su hijo Pablo Daniel un año después. Su vocación lo dirigió hacia la medicina, ingresando a la Facultad oficial en 1959. Luego de su desempeño como practicante interno del Ministerio de Salud Pública (1964-69) obtuvo el título de médico (1968). Se hizo cirujano y en esa especialidad desarrolló dos carreras paralelas: Facultad de Medicina y Servicio de Sanidad Militar.

Edgardo Gualberto Torterolo Prado was born in Montevideo on December 20, 1939 and died in that city, in the fullness of his professional practice, on July 31, 2003. His parents were Pío Gualberto Torterolo and María Rosaura Prado. He was married to María Elena Minetti (1966) and their son Pablo Daniel was born a year later. His vocation directed him towards medicine, entering the official School of Medicine in 1959. After working as an intern at the Ministry of Public Health (1964-69), he obtained his medical degree (1968). He became a surgeon and in that specialty he developed two parallel careers: Medical School and Military Health Service.

Edgardo Gualberto Torterolo Prado nasceu em Montevidéu em 20 de dezembro de 1939 e morreu em Montevidéu, no auge de sua carreira profissional, em 31 de julho de 2003. Seus pais eram Pío Gualberto Torterolo e María Rosaura Prado. Ele foi casado com María Elena Minetti (1966), com quem seu filho Pablo Daniel nasceu um ano mais tarde. Sua vocação o levou à medicina, e ele entrou na Faculdade oficial em 1959. Após trabalhar como estagiário no Ministério da Saúde Pública (1964-69), ele obteve seu diploma de médico (1968). Ele se tornou cirurgião e nessa especialidade desenvolveu duas carreiras paralelas: Faculdade de Medicina e Serviço de Saúde Militar.

Retrodicting the rise, spread, and fall of large-scale states in the Old World.

Understanding the rise, spread, and fall of large-scale states in the ancient world has occupied thinkers for millennia. However, no comprehensive mechanistic model of state dynamics based on their insights has emerged, leaving it difficult to evaluate empirically or quantitatively the different explanations offered. Here I present a spatially- and temporally-resolved agent-based model incorporating several hypotheses about the behavior of large-scale (>200 thousand km2) agrarian states and steppe nomadic confederations in Afro-Eurasia between the late Bronze and the end of the Medieval era (1500 BCE to 1500 CE). The model tracks the spread of agrarian states as they expand, conquer the territory of other states or are themselves conquered, and, occasionally, collapse. To accurately retrodict the historical record, several key contingent regional technological advances in state military and agricultural efficiencies are identified. Modifying the location, scale, and timing of these contingent developments allows quantitative investigation of historically-plausible alternative trajectories of state growth, spread, and fragmentation, while demonstrating the operation and limits of the model. Under nominal assumptions, the rapid yet staggered increase of agrarian state sizes across Eurasia after 600 BCE occurs in response to intense military pressure from 'mirror' steppe nomadic confederations. Nevertheless, in spite of various technological advances throughout the period, the modeled creation and spread of new agrarian states is a fundamental consequence of state collapse and internal civil wars triggered by rising 'demographic-structural' pressures that occur when state territorial growth is checked yet (warrior elite) population growth continues. Together the model's underlying mechanisms substantially account for the number of states, their duration, location, spread rate, overall occupied area, and total population size for three thousand years.