Identification of a Novel Small Molecule That Enhances the Release of Extracellular Vesicles with Immunostimulatory Potency via Induction of Calcium Influx.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) transfer antigens and immunomodulatory molecules in immunologic synapses as a part of intracellular communication, and EVs equipped with immunostimulatory functions have been utilized for vaccine formulation. Hence, we sought small-molecule compounds that increase immunostimulatory EVs released by antigen-presenting dendritic cells (DCs) for enhancement of vaccine immunogenicity. We previously performed high-throughput screening on a 28K compound library using three THP-1 reporter cell lines with CD63 Turbo-Luciferase, NF-κB, and interferon-sensitive response element (ISRE) reporter constructs, respectively. Because intracellular Ca2+ elevation enhances EV release, we screened 80 hit compounds and identified compound 634 as a Ca2+ influx inducer. 634 enhanced EV release in murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (mBMDCs) and increased costimulatory molecule expression on the surface of EVs and the parent cells. EVs isolated from 634-treated mBMDCs induced T cell proliferation in the presence of antigenic peptides. To assess the roles of intracellular Ca2+ elevation in immunostimulatory EV release, we performed structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies of 634. The analogues that retained the ability to induce Ca2+ influx induced more EVs with immunostimulatory properties from mBMDCs than did those that lacked the ability to induce Ca2+ influx. The levels of Ca2+ induction of synthesized analogues correlated with the numbers of EVs released and costimulatory molecule expression on the parent cells. Collectively, our study presents that a small molecule, 634, enhances the release of EVs with immunostimulatory potency via induction of Ca2+ influx. This agent is a novel tool for EV-based immune studies and vaccine development.

A Dual Adjuvant System for Intranasal Boosting of Local and Systemic Immunity for Influenza Vaccination.

Systemically vaccinated individuals against COVID-19 and influenza may continue to support viral replication and shedding in the upper airways, contributing to the spread of infections. Thus, a vaccine regimen that enhances mucosal immunity in the respiratory mucosa is needed to prevent a pandemic. Intranasal/pulmonary (IN) vaccines can promote mucosal immunity by promoting IgA secretion at the infection site. Here, we demonstrate that an intramuscular (IM) priming-IN boosting regimen with an inactivated influenza A virus adjuvanted with the liposomal dual TLR4/7 adjuvant (Fos47) enhances systemic and local/mucosal immunity. The IN boosting with Fos47 (IN-Fos47) enhanced antigen-specific IgA secretion in the upper and lower respiratory tracts compared to the IM boosting with Fos47 (IM-Fos47). The secreted IgA induced by IN-Fos47 was also cross-reactive to multiple influenza virus strains. Antigen-specific tissue-resident memory T cells in the lung were increased after IN boosting with Fos47, indicating that IN-Fos47 established tissue-resident T cells. Furthermore, IN-Fos47 induced systemic cross-reactive IgG antibody titers comparable to those of IM-Fos47. Neither local nor systemic reactogenicity or adverse effects were observed after IN delivery of Fos47. Collectively, these results indicate that the IM/IN regimen with Fos47 is safe and provides both local and systemic anti-influenza immune responses.