Intra- and inter-limb strength imbalance and asymmetry in soccer: A comparison of elite senior and junior players.

Evaluation of muscle strength imbalance can be an important element in optimizing the training process of soccer players. The purpose of the study was to examine isokinetic peak torque (PT) and total work (TW) exerted by both knee extensors (quadriceps or Q) and flexors (hamstrings or H), intra-limb imbalance and the magnitude and direction of inter-limb asymmetry in top elite senior (n = 109) and junior (n = 74) soccer players. An isokinetic dynamometry was used to measure maximum peak torque of quadriceps (PT-Q) and hamstrings (PT-H) at an angular velocity of 60° ·s-1, as well as the total work for extensors (TW-Q) and flexors (TW-H) at an angular velocity of 240° ·s-1 in the dominant (DL) and non-dominant leg (NDL) during concentric muscle contraction. Intra-limb imbalance and inter-limb asymmetries were calculated using a standard equation. Statistical analysis using t-test and Mann-Whitney U-test revealed: (a) no differences (p > 0.05) between groups for PT-Q and PT-H, (b) greater strength levels (p < 0.05) for TW-Q and TW-H of senior players than juniors, and (c) no differences (p > 0.05) between groups for intra-limb imbalance and inter-limb asymmetry. Additionally, Pearson's chi-kwadrat (χ2) analysis showed no differences (p > 0.05) between groups for intra-limb imbalance and inter-limb asymmetry in relation to the 'normative' values accepted in the literature that indicate an increase in the risk of knee injury. This study shows that isokinetic assessment can be an important tool to identify imbalances/asymmetries and to develop strategies to reduce the risk of muscle injury.

Validation and personality conditionings of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model in sport.

Achievement goal models have been successfully applied in sport. In recent years, a framework that has emerged in this area is the 3 × 2 approach, being a natural evolution of years of research into the issue of achievement goals. Nevertheless, it is essential to further validate the abovementioned approach and explore its psychosocial context. Hence, the purpose of this study was to validate the latest 3 × 2 achievement goal model among high-performance and recreational athletes using the Polish version of the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport (3 × 2 AGQ-S), and to determine the relationship between personality traits and achievement goals of athletes. The study included 413 athletes, with M = 20.62 and SD = 2.72. The 3 × 2 AGQ-S was used to assess achievement goals, the Big Five personality traits were assessed using the IPIP-BFM-20 questionnaire. The model of the Polish version of the 3 × 2 AGQ-S achieved a satisfactory fit to the data (CFI = 0.940, TLI = 0.923, RMSEA = 0.086, SRMR = 0.061). Cronbach's alphas for the subscales were: 0.77-0.96. High-performance athletes obtained higher achievement goals in task and self subscales than recreational athletes. Personality traits explained no more than 3% of variance of achievement goals in sport. Research involving the Polish version of the 3 × 2 AGQ-S supports the validity of the 3 × 2 model in sport among high-performance and recreational athletes. Nevertheless, the small relationships between the personality traits and achievement goals prompt searching for other psychosocial determinants of goals in sport.

Associations between physical activity, screen time, sleep time and selected academic skills in 8/9-year-old children.

BACKGROUND: High levels of physical activity (PA), low levels of screen time, combined with sufficient sleep time, provide better health benefits. However, few studies have examined the association of these behaviours with academic skills. Therefore, this study aims to determine how PA, screen time, and sleep time are related to selected academic skills of 8/9-year-old children while examining compliance with the guidelines on PA, sedentary behaviour, and sleep among this population group. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 114 primary school children (50% girls) aged 8-9years old from 2nd grade. The levels of PA, screen time, and sleep were assessed using self-reported questionnaires. The selected academic skills (based on reading and writing) were assessed by a battery of methods designed to diagnose the causes of school failure in students aged 7-9. Non-linear regression was applied to build multivariate models aimed at finding the most significant predictors for the selected academic skills separately. RESULTS: Sixty-seven percent of children met the sleep guidelines, 22% met the screen time guidelines, and only 8% met PA guidelines. In terms of screen time, boys spent more time playing games than girls (p = .008). Moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) was associated with higher/better scores of the visual-auditory integration (B = -0.07, p = .040). Not meeting the sleep guidelines was associated with lower scores in visual-auditory integration among children (B = 0.12, p = .042). Children who did not meet the screen time guidelines had lower scores in perceptual-motor integration (B = -0.09, p = .040). CONCLUSIONS: Participating in PA, limiting screen time and sufficient sleep time may benefit/support academic skills in children.

Psychological Femininity and Masculinity and Motivation in Team Sports.

It is hypothesized that levels of femininity and masculinity may be relevant to specific types of engagement in action. For this reason, the aim of this study was to search for relationships between psychological dimensions of femininity and masculinity and different forms of motivation, as well as their specific parts, among women and male athletes practicing team sports games. We researched 49 women aged 19 to 32 years representing sports such as football, handball, hockey, volleyball, and basketball and 56 men aged 18 to 31 years practicing football, hockey, volleyball, basketball, and handball. The respondents completed the Inventory to Assess Psychological Gender (IPP) and the Polish adaptation of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). It was determined that the psychological dimension of femininity was (in the male group) positively related to the dimension of amotivation, i.e., the lack of perception of a relationship between one's action and the outcome. In turn, the psychological dimension of masculinity was positively related to the motivation to know, motivation to accomplish, and motivation to experience stimulation, as well as the overall level of intrinsic motivation and the overall dimension of extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the masculinity dimension is, in male athletes, related to the level of the introjection motive, i.e., the process of integrating accepted patterns.

Validation of Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) among Polish athletes and the relationship between anxiety and goal orientation in sport.

This study aims to assess the validity and reliability of the Polish version of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2, as well as to determine the relationship between anxiety and goal orientation among high-performance and recreational athletes. A total of 519 athletes aged M = 22.83 (SD = 4.92) participated in the study, including 266 males and 253 females. 242 athletes trained professionally and 277 recreationally. The Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) was used to assess anxiety levels, while the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) enabled to assess athletes' goal orientation. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit of the model to the data for the Polish version of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (CFI = 0.945, RMSEA = 0.072). The models obtained during analysis of high-performance and recreational athletes, women and men, also presented a satisfactory fit to the data (CFI 0.932-0.946). The configural, metric, scalar and strict measurement invariances were demonstrated for high-performance and recreational athletes as well as among women and men. High internal consistency coefficients (alpha 0.81-0.91) and a high test-retest reliability indexes were reported (ICC 0.74-0.87). Women presented higher level of competitive anxiety than men. A positive relationship between competitive anxiety and athletes' ego orientation was also presented. This relationship concerned particularly women practicing sport recreationally.

Application of Stress Coping Ability as a Conduit between Goal Orientation and Play Effectiveness among Polish Soccer Players.

BACKGROUND: Athletes should be distinguished by their capacity to deal with stress effectively. Motivated soccer players will employ stress-coping strategies that are linked to their ability to perform at a high level. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between a player's specific goal orientation, coping in sports, and the effectiveness of play during competition. METHODS: The study enrolled 122 male elite soccer players at the championship level who were between the ages of 16 and 19. All participants completed the Polish version of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, the Polish version of the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport Questionnaire, the CISS questionnaire, and Szwarc's observation sheet for evaluating soccer performance. RESULTS: The results showed that the task-based stress-coping mode partially mediated the relationship between task motivation and the observed effectiveness of players in soccer. CONCLUSION: From an applied perspective, the data on the relationship between selected mental factors and soccer performance point to a possible direction of work for players aspiring to the highest level of performance.

The Importance of Selected Coordination Motor Skills for an Individual Football Player's Effectiveness in a Game.

The appropriate level of coordination motor skills (CMS) in a football player is one of the factors determining the effectiveness of their actions. Adaptability and complex reaction time are of particular importance in models of coordination requirements in football. The lead aim of this study is to determine the relationship between two selected coordination motor skills and the offensive, defensive and comprehensive effectiveness of an individual player's actions. The study was conducted on a group of 91 Polish male football players aged 20 to 31 years, all in the senior age category. The research tools included: a test assessing motor adaptation (research by dribbling the ball with the dominant leg), psychomotor test of complex reaction time (tested with an S-10.2 measuring device) and a test of the effectiveness of an individual player's actions (one-on-one simulation game). The conducted research indicated that adaptability and complex reaction time are both important abilities for success when attacking in an individual game, and in the assessment of a comprehensive index of individual competences in a one-on-one football game. However, the most significant factor influencing the effectiveness of a player's defensive action is solely the complex reaction time.

Do Expert Fencers Engage the Same Visual Perception Strategies as Beginners?

An effective visual perception strategy helps a fencer quickly react to an opponent's actions. This study aimed to examine and compare visual perception strategies used by high-performance foil fencers (experts) and beginners. In an eye tracking experiment, we analysed to which areas beginning and expert fencers paid attention during duels. Novices paid attention to all examined areas of interest comprising the guard, foil (blade and tip), armed hand, lower torso, and upper torso of their opponents. Experts, however, paid significantly less attention to the foil, picking up information from other areas, mainly the upper torso and the armed hand. These results indicate that expert fencers indeed engage different visual perception strategies than beginners. The present findings highlight the fact that beginner fencers should be taught already in the early stages of their careers how to pick up information from various body areas of their opponents.

Goal Orientation and Physical Activity: Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of the Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM).

Motivational factors are among the most important determinants of undertaking and participating in physical activity. An adequate measurement of motivation and the assessment of its initial characteristics form the basis for possible further practical interventions of a compensatory or promotional nature. Considering the above, the main aim of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM), and to determine the association between the task and the ego orientations and selected components of physical activity, i.e., frequency of undertaking, declared time per session and time spent on physical activity. In addition to the typical indices of psychometric assessment, an analysis of the reliability of test items by applying the item response theory (IRT) model was also presented. The study included 318 individuals (173 females, 145 males), aged 21 years on average, undertaking recreational physical activity. The GOEM scale by Petherick and Markland (2008) was used. The model of the Polish version of the GOEM scale fitted the empirical data well (CFI = 0.955). Satisfactory reliability indices were also obtained (task subscale: alpha = 0.83, omega = 0.83; ego subscale: alpha = 0.86, omega = 0.86). Reliability, as assessed by the test-retest method, was ICC = 0.80 for the task subscale and ICC = 0.87 for the ego subscale. The IRT analysis showed that the ego subscale was more precise in the middle level of the trait, while the task subscale provided more information in the low and middle level of the trait and relatively little information in the high level of the trait. The positive associations of the task subscale with the frequency of physical activity and the time spent in a single exercise session were also noted.

The Measurement of Goal Orientation in Sport: Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ).

The main aim of the study is a comprehensive assessment of psychometric properties of the Polish version of Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) in sport. Apart from standard psychometric evaluation, the paper presents an analysis of item reliability through the use of Item Response Theory, as well as the analysis of relationships between sport type, level of participation, gender and goal orientation level. The study covered 412 people aged M = 23.46 (SD = 5.40). The Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-28) were used. High reliability of POSQ ego subscale (α = 0.89, ω = 0.89) and POSQ task subscale (α = 0.90, ω = 0.91) were noted. The test-retest correlations at the two-week interval were ICC = 0.91 for ego subscale, and ICC = 0.71 for task subscale, respectively. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a relatively good fit of the two-factor model to the data (CFI = 0.94). Relationships between the goal orientation measured by the POSQ questionnaire and motivational traits measured by TEOSQ and SMS-28 were obtained. It was also shown that high-performance athletes had higher scores on the ego factor than recreational athletes. Moreover, men had higher scores on the ego factor than women. The Perception of Success Questionnaire (Polish version) is characterized by satisfactory psychometric properties and can be used for scientific research and diagnosis.

Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ).

The main aim of the study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ). The study covered 651 athletes aged 19.2 years, SD (Standard deviation) = 2.21. The task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ) and sport motivation scale (SMS-28) were used. Cronbach's Alpha for the ego subscale was 0.84, and for the task subscale 0.81 (McDonald's omega was 0.84, 0.82 respectively). The reliability of the test-retest with two weeks interval was ICC (Intraclass correlation coefficient) = 0.86 for ego and ICC = 0.86 for task. Initially, the two-factor model was not fully fitted (CFI (Comparative fit index) = 0.84), however the model with correlated errors for selected test items was well fitted to data (CFI = 0.95). Statistically significant, positive correlations between the task orientation and the intrinsic motivation components were obtained. Additionally, individual athletes had higher scores on the ego factor and lower scores on the task factor than the team athletes. These effects were moderated by the level of participation and occurred among high-performance athletes. Due to satisfactory reliability and validity indicators the Polish version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ) can be used both for scientific research and in the individual diagnostics of athletes.

Effectiveness and Durability of Transfer Training in Fencing.

This paper reports the results of an experiment that aimed to study transfer training in fencing. Fencers from the experimental group underwent six-week transfer training while those from the control group underwent regular fencing training. The fencers' performance was analyzed thrice: before the experimental training (pretest), immediately after it (posttest), and four weeks after it (retention test). Using a device that simulates fencing moves and analyzes the accuracy of such performance, participants completed, with both hands, three tests related to straight thrust accuracy. While no differences in hand grip strength was observed between the two groups across the three tests, significant differences occurred in terms of their performance on the device. The groups did not differ in the pretests and the retention tests. However, the fencers from the experimental group generally performed better in postests than prestests. These results show that bilateral transfer can be effective in foil fencing training, although its positive effects are short-term. In order to be effective, transfer training should be used as a regular training tool.