CSPG4 CAR-redirected Cytokine Induced Killer lymphocytes (CIK) as effective cellular immunotherapy for HLA class I defective melanoma.

BACKGROUND: Even acknowledging the game-changing results achieved in the treatment of metastatic melanoma with the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI), a large proportion of patients (40-60%) still fail to respond or relapse due to the development of resistance. Alterations in the expression of Human Leukocyte Antigen class I (HLA-I) molecules are considered to play a major role in clinical resistance to ICI. Cellular immunotherapy with HLA-independent CAR-redirected lymphocytes is a promising alternative in this challenging setting and dedicated translational models are needed. METHODS: In this study, we propose an HLA-independent therapeutic strategy with Cytokine Induced Killer lymphocytes (CIK) genetically engineered with a Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) targeting the tumor antigen CSPG4 as effector mechanism. We investigated the preclinical antitumor activity of CSPG4-CAR.CIK in vitro and in a xenograft murine model focusing on patient-derived melanoma cell lines (Mel) with defective expression of HLA-I molecules. RESULTS: We successfully generated CSPG4-CAR.CIK from patients with metastatic melanoma and reported their intense activity in vitro against a panel of CSPG4-expressing patient-derived Mel. The melanoma killing activity was intense, even at very low effector to target ratios, and not influenced by the expression level (high, low, defective) of HLA-I molecules on target cells. Furthermore, CAR.CIK conditioned medium was capable of upregulating the expression of HLA-I molecules on melanoma cells. A comparable immunomodulatory effect was replicated by treatment of Mel cells with exogenous IFN-γ and IFN-α. The antimelanoma activity of CSPG4-CAR.CIK was successfully confirmed in vivo, obtaining a significant tumor growth inhibition of an HLA-defective Mel xenograft in immunodeficient mice. CONCLUSIONS: In this study we reported the intense preclinical activity of CSPG4-CAR.CIK against melanoma, including those with low or defective HLA-I expression. Our findings support CSPG4 as a valuable CAR target in melanoma and provide translational rationale for clinical studies exploring CAR-CIK cellular immunotherapies within the challenging setting of patients not responsive or relapsing to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Full chimaeric CAR.CIK from patients engrafted after allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplant: Feasibility, anti-leukaemic potential and alloreactivity across major human leukocyte antigen barriers.

Cytokine-induced killer lymphocytes (CIK) are a promising alternative to conventional donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI), following allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), due to their intrinsic anti-tumour activity and reduced risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). We explored the feasibility, anti-leukaemic activity and alloreactive risk of CIK generated from full-donor chimaeric (fc) patients and genetically redirected by a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) (fcCAR.CIK) against the leukaemic target CD44v6. fcCAR.CIK were successfully ex-vivo expanded from leukaemic patients in complete remission after HCT confirming their intense preclinical anti-leukaemic activity without enhancing the alloreactivity across human leukocyte antigen (HLA) barriers. Our study provides translational bases to support clinical studies with fcCAR.CIK, a sort of biological bridge between the autologous and allogeneic sources, as alternative DLI following HCT.

Novel Lymphocyte-Independent Antitumor Activity by PD-1 Blocking Antibody against PD-1+ Chemoresistant Lung Cancer Cells.

PURPOSE: Antibodies against the lymphocyte PD-1 (aPD-1) receptor are cornerstone agents for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), based on their ability to restore the exhausted antitumor immune response. Our study reports a novel, lymphocyte-independent, therapeutic activity of aPD-1 against NSCLC, blocking the tumor-intrinsic PD-1 receptors on chemoresistant cells. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: PD-1 in NSCLC cells was explored in vitro at baseline, including stem-like pneumospheres, and following treatment with cisplatin both at transcriptional and protein levels. PD-1 signaling and RNA sequencing were assessed. The lymphocyte-independent antitumor activity of aPD-1 was explored in vitro, by PD-1 blockade and stimulation with soluble ligand (PD-L1s), and in vivo within NSCLC xenograft models. RESULTS: We showed the existence of PD-1+ NSCLC cell subsets in cell lines and large in silico datasets (Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia and The Cancer Genome Atlas). Cisplatin significantly increased PD-1 expression on chemo-surviving NSCLC cells (2.5-fold P = 0.0014), while the sequential treatment with anti-PD-1 Ab impaired their recovery after chemotherapy. PD-1 was found to be associated with tumor stemness features. PD-1 expression was enhanced in NSCLC stem-like pneumospheres (P < 0.0001), significantly promoted by stimulation with soluble PD-L1 (+27% ± 4, P < 0.0001) and inhibited by PD-1 blockade (-30% ± 3, P < 0.0001). The intravenous monotherapy with anti-PD-1 significantly inhibited tumor growth of NSCLC xenografts in immunodeficient mice, without the contribution of the immune system, and delayed the occurrence of chemoresistance when combined with cisplatin. CONCLUSIONS: We report first evidence of a novel lymphocyte-independent activity of anti-PD-1 antibodies in NSCLC, capable of inhibiting chemo-surviving NSCLC cells and exploitable to contrast disease relapses following chemotherapy. See related commentary by Augustin et al., p. 505.

Efficacy of CAR-T immunotherapy in MET overexpressing tumors not eligible for anti-MET targeted therapy.

BACKGROUND: Aberrant activation of the MET receptor in cancer is sustained by genetic alterations or, more frequently, by transcriptional upregulations. A fraction of MET-amplified or mutated tumors are sensible to MET targeting agents, but their responsiveness is typically short-lasting, as secondary resistance eventually occurs. Since in the absence of genetic alterations MET is usually not a tumor driver, MET overexpressing tumors are not/poorly responsive to MET targeted therapies. Consequently, the vast majority of tumors exhibiting MET activation still represent an unmet medical need. METHODS: Here we propose an immunotherapy strategy based on T lymphocytes expressing a Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) targeting MET overexpressing tumors of different histotypes. We engineered two different MET-CAR constructs and tested MET-CAR-T cell cytotoxic activity against different MET overexpressing models, including tumor cell lines, primary cancer cells, organoids, and xenografts in immune-deficient mice. RESULTS: We proved that MET-CAR-T exerted a specific cytotoxic activity against MET expressing cells. Cell killing was proportional to the level of MET expressed on the cell surface. While CAR-T cytotoxicity was minimal versus cells carrying MET at physiological levels, essentially sparing normal cells, the activity versus MET overexpressing tumors was robust, significantly controlling tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Notably, MET-CAR-T cells were also able to brake acquired resistance to MET targeting agents in MET amplified cancer cells carrying secondary mutations in downstream signal transducers. CONCLUSIONS: We set and validated at the pre-clinical level a MET-CAR immunotherapy strategy potentially beneficial for cancers not eligible for MET targeted therapy with inhibitory molecules, including those exhibiting primary or secondary resistance.

Integrated Antitumor Activities of Cellular Immunotherapy with CIK Lymphocytes and Interferons against KIT/PDGFRA Wild Type GIST.

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are rare, mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, characterized by either KIT or PDGFRA mutation in about 85% of cases. KIT/PDGFRA wild type gastrointestinal stromal tumors (wtGIST) account for the remaining 15% of GIST and represent an unmet medical need: their prevalence and potential medical vulnerabilities are not completely defined, and effective therapeutic strategies are still lacking. In this study we set a patient-derived preclinical model of wtGIST to investigate their phenotypic features, along with their susceptibility to cellular immunotherapy with cytokine-induced killer lymphocytes (CIK) and interferons (IFN). We generated 11 wtGIST primary cell lines (wtGISTc). The main CIK ligands (MIC A/B; ULBPs), along with PD-L1/2, were expressed by wtGISTc and the expression of HLA-I molecules was preserved. Patient-derived CIK were capable of intense killing in vitro against wtGISTc resistant to both imatinib and sunitinib. We found that CIK produce a high level of granzyme B, IFNα and IFNγ. CIK-conditioned supernatant was responsible for part of the observed tumoricidal effect, along with positive bystander modulatory activities enhancing the expression of PD-L1/2 and HLA-I molecules. IFNα, but not In, had direct antitumor effects on 50% (4/8) of TKI-resistant wtGISTc, positively correlated with the tumor expression of IFN receptors. wtGIST cells that survived IFNα were still sensitive to CIK immunotherapy. Our data support the exploration of CIK immunotherapy in clinical studies for TKI-resistant wtGIST, proposing reevaluation for IFNα within this challenging setting.

Recruitment, Infiltration, and Cytotoxicity of HLA-Independent Killer Lymphocytes in Three-Dimensional Melanoma Models.

Cancer adoptive cell therapy (ACT) with HLA-independent tumor killer lymphocytes is a promising approach, with intrinsic features potentially addressing crucial tumor-escape mechanisms of checkpoint inhibitors. Cytokine-induced Killer (CIK) and Natural Killer (NK) lymphocytes share similar tumor-killing mechanisms, with preclinical evidence of intense activity against multiple solid tumors and currently testing in clinical studies. To improve the effective clinical translation of such ACT approaches, several fundamental questions still need to be addressed within appropriate preclinical contexts, capable of overcoming limitations imposed by most traditional two-dimensional assays. Here, we developed a novel experimental approach to explore, dissect, and visualize the interactions of CIK and NK lymphocytes with melanoma tumors in vitro in 3D. Primary melanoma cells were assembled into small tumors that were dispersed in a 3D matrix and challenged with patient-derived CIK or the NK-92 cell line. By means of imaging-based methods, we reported, visualized, and quantitatively measured the recruitment of CIK and NK on the 3D targets, their infiltration, and cytotoxic activity. Our results support the effective tumor recruitment and tumor infiltration by CIK and NK. Such features appeared dependent on the specific geometric aspects of the environment but can be explained in terms of directional migration toward the tumor, without invoking major feedback components. Overall, our 3D platform allows us to monitor the processes of tumor recruitment, infiltration, and killing by means of live measurements, revealing important kinetic aspects of ACT with CIK and NK against melanoma.

Cellular Immunotherapy Targeting Cancer Stem Cells: Preclinical Evidence and Clinical Perspective.

The term "cancer stem cells" (CSCs) commonly refers to a subset of tumor cells endowed with stemness features, potentially involved in chemo-resistance and disease relapses. CSCs may present peculiar immunogenic features influencing their homeostasis within the tumor microenvironment. The susceptibility of CSCs to recognition and targeting by the immune system is a relevant issue and matter of investigation, especially considering the multiple emerging immunotherapy strategies. Adoptive cellular immunotherapies, especially those strategies encompassing the genetic redirection with chimeric antigen receptors (CAR), hold relevant promise in several tumor settings and might in theory provide opportunities for selective elimination of CSC subsets. Initial dedicated preclinical studies are supporting the potential targeting of CSCs by cellular immunotherapies, indirect evidence from clinical studies may be derived and new studies are ongoing. Here we review the main issues related to the putative immunogenicity of CSCs, focusing on and highlighting the existing evidence and opportunities for cellular immunotherapy approaches with T and non-T antitumor lymphocytes.

CSPG4-Specific CAR.CIK Lymphocytes as a Novel Therapy for the Treatment of Multiple Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Histotypes.

PURPOSE: No effective therapy is available for unresectable soft-tissue sarcomas (STS). This unmet clinical need prompted us to test whether chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4)-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-redirected cytokine-induced killer lymphocytes (CAR.CIK) are effective in eliminating tumor cells derived from multiple STS histotypes in vitro and in immunodeficient mice. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The experimental platform included patient-derived CAR.CIK and cell lines established from multiple STS histotypes. CAR.CIK were transduced with a retroviral vector encoding second-generation CSPG4-specific CAR (CSPG4-CAR) with 4-1BB costimulation. The functional activity of CSPG4-CAR.CIK was explored in vitro, in two- and three-dimensional STS cultures, and in three in vivo STS xenograft models. RESULTS: CSPG4-CAR.CIK were efficiently generated from patients with STS. CSPG4 was highly expressed in multiple STS histotypes by in silico analysis and on all 16 STS cell lines tested by flow cytometry. CSPG4-CAR.CIK displayed superior in vitro cytolytic activity against multiple STS histotypes as compared with paired unmodified control CIK. CSPG4-CAR.CIK also showed strong antitumor activity against STS spheroids; this effect was associated with tumor recruitment, infiltration, and matrix penetration. CSPG4-CAR.CIK significantly delayed or reversed tumor growth in vivo in three STS xenograft models (leiomyosarcoma, undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma, and fibrosarcoma). Tumor growth inhibition persisted for up to 2 weeks following the last administration of CSPG4-CAR.CIK. CONCLUSIONS: This study has shown that CSPG4-CAR.CIK effectively targets multiple STS histotypes in vitro and in immunodeficient mice. These results provide a strong rationale to translate the novel strategy we have developed into a clinical setting.

CAR-Based Strategies beyond T Lymphocytes: Integrative Opportunities for Cancer Adoptive Immunotherapy.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T lymphocytes (CAR Ts) produced impressive clinical results against selected hematological malignancies, but the extension of CAR T cell therapy to the challenging field of solid tumors has not, so far, replicated similar clinical outcomes. Many efforts are currently dedicated to improve the efficacy and safety of CAR-based adoptive immunotherapies, including application against solid tumors. A promising approach is CAR engineering of immune effectors different from αßT lymphocytes. Herein we reviewed biological features, therapeutic potential, and safety of alternative effectors to conventional CAR T cells: γδT, natural killer (NK), NKT, or cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells. The intrinsic CAR-independent antitumor activities, safety profile, and ex vivo expansibility of these alternative immune effectors may favorably contribute to the clinical development of CAR strategies. The proper biological features of innate immune response effectors may represent an added value in tumor settings with heterogeneous CAR target expression, limiting the risk of tumor clonal escape. All these properties bring out CAR engineering of alternative immune effectors as a promising integrative option to be explored in future clinical studies.

Next generation immune-checkpoints for cancer therapy.

The discovery and clinical application of immune-checkpoint inhibitors has dramatically improved the treatments, outcomes and therapeutic concepts in multiple tumor settings. This breakthrough was mainly based on monoclonal antibodies blocking the inhibitory molecule CTLA-4 and or the PD-1/PD-L1 axis, with the aim of counteracting major tumor immune evasion mechanisms. Even acknowledging these important successes, not all the patients benefit from these treatments. Translational and clinical research efforts are ongoing to explore the potentialities of a new generation of immune-modulatory molecules to extend current clinical applications and contrast the unsolved issues of resistance and disease relapse that still affects a considerable rate of patients. New immune-checkpoints, with either stimulatory or inhibitory functions are emerging with key roles in regulating T cell response but also affecting other crucial effectors belonging to the innate immune response (e.g., natural killer). Their therapeutic exploitation, either alone or in strategical combinations, is providing important preclinical results, holding promises currently explored in initial clinical trials. The first results point toward favorable safety profiles with selective hints of activity in challenging settings. Important issues regarding the dose, schedule and rational combinations remain open and data from the clinical studies are needed. Here we provide an overview of the main emerging stimulatory or inhibitory immune-checkpoints exploitable in cancer treatment, briefly reporting their biological function, preclinical activity and preliminary clinical data.

BRAF and MEK Inhibitors Increase PD-1-Positive Melanoma Cells Leading to a Potential Lymphocyte-Independent Synergism with Anti-PD-1 Antibody.

Purpose: BRAF and MEK inhibitors (BRAF/MEKi) favor melanoma-infiltrating lymphocytes, providing the rationale for current combinatorial trials with anti-PD-1 antibody. A portion of melanoma cells may express PD-1, and anti-PD-1 antibody could have a direct antitumor effect. Here, we explore whether BRAF/MEKi modulate rates of PD-1+ melanoma cells, supporting an additional-lymphocyte-independent-basis for their therapeutic combination with anti-PD-1 antibody.Experimental Design: With data mining and flow cytometry, we assessed PD-1, PD-L1/2 expression on melanoma cell lines (CCLE, N = 61; validation cell lines, N = 7) and melanoma tumors (TCGA, N = 214). We explored in vitro how BRAF/MEKi affect rates of PD-1+, PD-L1/2+ melanoma cells, and characterized the proliferative and putative stemness features of PD-1+ melanoma cells. We tested the functional lymphocyte-independent effect of anti-PD-1 antibody alone and in combination with BRAF/MEKi in vitro and in an in vivo immunodeficient murine model.Results: PD-1 is consistently expressed on a small subset of melanoma cells, but PD-1+ cells increase to relevant rates during BRAF/MEKi treatment [7.3% (5.6-14.2) vs. 1.5% (0.7-3.2), P = 0.0156; N = 7], together with PD-L2+ melanoma cells [8.5% (0.0-63.0) vs. 1.5% (0.2-43.3), P = 0.0312; N = 7]. PD-1+ cells proliferate less than PD-1- cells (avg. 65% less; t = 7 days) and are preferentially endowed with stemness features. In vivo, the direct anti-melanoma activity of PD-1 blockage as monotherapy was negligible, but its association with BRAF/MEKi significantly delayed the development of drug resistance and tumor relapse.Conclusions: BRAF/MEKi increase the rates of PD-1+ melanoma cells that may sustain tumor relapse, providing a lymphocyte-independent rationale to explore combinatory strategies with anti-PD-1 antibody. Clin Cancer Res; 24(14); 3377-85. ©2018 AACR.