Defining and identifying the critical elements of operational readiness for public health emergency events: a rapid scoping review.

INTRODUCTION: COVID-19 showed that countries must strengthen their operational readiness (OPR) capabilities to respond to an imminent pandemic threat rapidly and proactively. We conducted a rapid scoping evidence review to understand the definition and critical elements of OPR against five core sub-systems of a new framework to strengthen the global architecture for Health Emergency Preparedness Response and Resilience (HEPR). METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science, targeted repositories, websites, and grey literature databases for publications between 1 January 2010 and 29 September 2021 in English, German, French or Afrikaans. Included sources were of any study design, reporting OPR, defined as immediate actions taken in the presence of an imminent threat, from groups who led or responded to a specified health emergency. We used prespecified and tested methods to screen and select sources, extract data, assess credibility and analyse results against the HEPR framework. RESULTS: Of 7005 sources reviewed, 79 met the eligibility criteria, including 54 peer-reviewed publications. The majority were descriptive reports (28%) and qualitative analyses (30%) from early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Definitions of OPR varied while nine articles explicitly used the term 'readiness', others classified OPR as part of preparedness or response. Applying our working OPR definition across all sources, we identified OPR actions within all five HEPR subsystems. These included resource prepositioning for early detection, data sharing, tailored communication and interventions, augmented staffing, timely supply procurement, availability and strategic dissemination of medical countermeasures, leadership, comprehensive risk assessment and resource allocation supported by relevant legislation. We identified gaps related to OPR for research and technology-enabled manufacturing platforms. CONCLUSIONS: OPR is in an early stage of adoption. Establishing a consistent and explicit framework for OPRs within the context of existing global legal and policy frameworks can foster coherence and guide evidence-based policy and practice improvements in health emergency management.

Strengthening global health security by embedding the International Health Regulations requirements into national health systems.

The International Health Regulations (IHR) 2005, as the overarching instrument for global health security, are designed to prevent and cope with major international public health threats. But poor implementation in countries hampers their effectiveness. In the wake of a number of major international health crises, such as the 2014 Ebola and 2016 Zika outbreaks, and the findings of a number of high-level assessments of the global response to these crises, it has become clear that there is a need for more joined-up thinking between health system strengthening activities and health security efforts for prevention, alert and response. WHO is working directly with its Member States to promote this approach, more specifically around how to better embed the IHR (2005) core capacities into the main health system functions. This paper looks at how and where the intersections between the IHR and the health system can be best leveraged towards developing greater health system resilience. This merging of approaches is a key component in pursuit of Universal Health Coverage and strengthened global health security as two mutually reinforcing agendas.

Malaria in the WHO European Region: on the road to elimination 2000-2015: summary

This is an English version and summary of a Russian publication on the elimination of malaria in the WHO European Region. Through the considerable efforts of affected countries, WHO and the international community, the European Region became the first WHO region to interrupt transmission of indigenous malaria. The report summarizes the lessons learnt, experiences accumulated and results achieved in curbing epidemics and outbreaks after malaria resurgence, eliminating malaria and preventing the re-establishment of its transmission in malaria-affected countries and the entire Region. The publication was prepared by WHO staff members and international consultants of the WHO Regional Office for Europe and national malaria counterparts who have been committed to and involved in epidemic containment, malaria elimination and prevention over the past 16 years (2000–2015). The publication is intended for health managers and personnel, researchers, teachers, students and everyone who is interested in tropical diseases, medical parasitology and public health.

Challenges of maintaining polio-free status of the European Region.

BACKGROUND: The European region, certified as polio free in 2002, had recent wild poliovirus (WPV) introductions, resulting in a major outbreak in Central Asian countries and Russia in 2010 and in current widespread WPV type 1 circulation in Israel, which endangered the polio-free status of the region. METHODS: We assessed the data on the major determinants of poliovirus transmission risk (population immunity, surveillance, and outbreak preparedness) and reviewed current threats and measures implemented in response to recent WPV introductions. RESULTS: Despite high regional vaccination coverage and functioning surveillance, several countries in the region are at high or intermediate risk of poliovirus transmission. Coverage remains suboptimal in some countries, subnational geographic areas, and population groups, and surveillance (acute flaccid paralysis, enterovirus, and environmental) needs further strengthening. Supplementary immunization activities, which were instrumental in the rapid interruption of WPV1 circulation in 2010, should be implemented in high-risk countries to close population immunity gaps. National polio outbreak preparedness plans need strengthening. Immunization efforts to interrupt WPV transmission in Israel should continue. CONCLUSIONS: The European region has successfully maintained its polio-free status since 2002, but numerous challenges remain. Staying polio free will require continued coordinated efforts, political commitment and financial support from all countries.

Risk factors for low vaccination coverage among Roma children in disadvantaged settlements in Belgrade, Serbia.

BACKGROUND: Full vaccination coverage for children under 59 months of age in Serbia is over 90%. This study assesses vaccination coverage and examines its association with birth registration among Roma children who resided in disadvantaged settlements in Belgrade, Serbia. METHODS: The First Roma Health and Nutrition Survey in Belgrade settlements, 2009, was conducted among households of 468 Roma children between the ages of 6-59 months. The 2005 WHO Immunization Coverage Cluster Survey sampling methodology was employed. Vaccinations were recorded using children's vaccination cards and through verification steps carried out in the Primary Health Care Centers. For those who had health records the information on vaccination was recorded. RESULTS: About 88% of children had vaccination cards. The mean rate of age appropriate full immunization was 16% for OPV and DTP and 14.3% for MMR. Multivariate analyses indicated that children whose births were registered with the civil authorities were more likely to have their vaccination cards [OR=6.1, CI (2.5, 15.0)] and to have their full, age appropriate, series vaccinations for DTP, OPV, MMR and HepB [OR=3.8, CI (1.5, 10.0), OR=3.2, CI (1.5, 6.6), OR=4.8, CI (1.1, 21.0), OR=5.4, CI (1.4, 21.6), respectively]. CONCLUSIONS: The immunization coverage among Roma children in settlements is far below the WHO/UNICEF MDG4 target in achieving prevention and control of vaccine preventable diseases. It demonstrates the need to include "invisible" populations into the health systems in continuous, integrated, comprehensive, accessible and sensitive modes.

What will it take to achieve measles elimination in the World Health Organization European Region: progress from 2003-2009 and essential accelerated actions.

BACKGROUND: The Member States of the European Region (EUR) of the World Health Organization (WHO) have made great progress towards achieving the goal of measles elimination by 2010. METHODS: Measles surveillance and vaccine coverage data from 2003-2009 reported to WHO were analyzed. A review of feasibility of reaching the elimination goal by the 2010 target date was conducted in 2009. RESULTS: From 2003-2009, the measles incidence decreased dramatically and coverage with 2 doses of measles vaccine increased among wide age groups of susceptible persons. With the decrease of disease incidence and the reduction of outbreaks in the eastern part of EUR, the proportion of reported cases in the western part increased. In 2009, outbreaks in 5 countries accounted for 89.6% of reported cases. Challenges to reach the 2010 goal include ongoing outbreaks with reestablished endemicity in some countries, decreased demand for vaccines with an increased focus on the measles vaccine safety, and population groups with limited access to immunization services. CONCLUSIONS: Measles elimination in EUR is attainable, albeit not by 2010. EUR countries should ensure political commitment and resources to protect the gains made to date and address these challenges to sustain the progress and achieve the elimination goal.

Supplementary immunization activities to achieve measles elimination: experience of the European Region.

BACKGROUND: Supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) using measles-containing vaccine (MCV) have had a substantial impact on reducing mortality associated with measles worldwide. METHODS: To assess impact of SIAs on measles incidence in the World Health Organization European Region and their role at the final stages of measles elimination efforts in Europe, we reviewed information on SIAs, measles surveillance, and routine vaccination coverage during 2000-2009. RESULTS: During 2000-2009, >57 million persons received MCV through SIAs in 16 countries. The Region primarily focused on catch-up campaigns with wider target age groups than in other regions and subsequently relied on routine vaccination rather than periodic follow-up SIAs for the second MCV dose. In addition, the concept of SIAs has been expanded from short-term (<30 days) mass campaigns implemented in other regions to incorporate vaccination efforts over longer periods and outbreak response vaccination. In 2009, 14 of 16 countries that conducted SIAs reported no measles cases or <1 case per 1,000,000 population, reflecting the post-SIA decrease in incidence. CONCLUSIONS: SIAs have made a substantial contribution to the success of measles elimination efforts and will likely remain an important strategy for interrupting measles virus transmission in the European Region, although specific approaches will vary by country.

Rotavirus burden among children in the newly independent states of the former union of soviet socialist republics: literature review and first-year results from the rotavirus surveillance network.

BACKGROUND: Data on rotavirus burden among children in the 15 newly independent states of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, particularly contemporary data from poorer countries, are not widely available. These data are desired by policy makers to assess the value of rotavirus vaccination, especially since the GAVI Alliance approved financial support for the region's eligible countries. The Rotavirus Surveillance Network was established to provide these data. METHODS: We reviewed the region's literature on rotavirus burden. We established an active surveillance network for rotavirus and analyzed data from 2007 from 4 sentinel hospitals in 3 countries (Georgia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine) that were collected using standardized enrollment and stool sample testing methods. RESULTS: Specimens for rotavirus testing were collected before 1997 in most studies, and the majority of studies were from 1 country, the Russian Federation. Overall, the studies indicated that approximately 33% of hospitalizations for gastroenteritis among children were attributable to rotavirus. The Rotavirus Surveillance Network documented that 1425 (42%) of 3374 hospitalizations for acute gastroenteritis among children aged <5 years were attributable to rotavirus (site median, 40%). Seasonal peaks (autumn through spring) were observed. Genotype data on 323 samples showed that G1P[8] was the most common type (32%), followed by G9P[8] (20%), G2P[4] (18%), and G4P[8] (18%). Infections due to G10 and G12 and mixed infections were also detected. CONCLUSIONS: The burden of rotavirus disease in the newly independent states is substantial. Vaccines should be considered for disease prevention.

Vaccine safety controversies and the future of vaccination programs.

In the years following the hepatitis B vaccination/multiple sclerosis controversy, a number of new issues regarding vaccine safety have been raised, in some cases leading to more debate and confusion. Against this background, an international group of experts was convened to review the current points of view concerning the use of thimerosal as a preservative and its potential risks; the suggested link between thimerosal-containing vaccines and acute lymphoblastic leukemia; the alleged association between aluminum-containing vaccines/macrophagic myofasciitis and general systemic complaints; a possible link between vaccination and autoimmune pathology; and a hypothetical link between measles-mumps-rubella vaccination and autism. At present, there are no data to conclude that childhood vaccines, and in particular hepatitis B vaccine, pose a serious health risk or justify a change in current immunization practice. However, vaccine "scares" continue to have an international impact on immunization coverage. Creating a positive environment for immunization can be achieved by repositioning the value of vaccines and vaccination, supported by evidence-based information. The role of international organizations, the media, and the industry in the implementation of communication strategies was discussed and the impact of litigation issues on vaccination was evaluated. The Viral Hepatitis Prevention Board confirms its commitment to current recommendations for universal and risk group hepatitis B vaccination and further encourages the conduct of vaccine safety studies and the dissemination of their results.

Measles and rubella in the World Health Organization European region: diversity creates challenges.

Since 1984, the World Health Organization (WHO) European Region has had targets for reducing the burden of a number of communicable diseases. While some countries have already met the targets for interrupting indigenous measles transmission and for reducing the incidence of congenital rubella syndrome to <1 case per 100,000 births, most have not. The cultural and economic diversity of the region present a number of challenges that must be overcome before the regional targets are met. These include social factors, political will, economic costs associated with supplementary campaigns, and more effective communication with health professionals and the public on the benefits and risks associated with immunization. Most WHO European Region member states are expected to use combined measles-mumps-rubella vaccine within the next 5 years. Consultation within the region is occurring on a strategic plan to meet the targets by 2010.

Measles-rubella mass immunization campaign in Albania, November 2000.

In 2000, Albania resolved to eliminate measles by 2007 by use of a four-step program: by conducting a "catch-up" vaccination campaign for all children aged 1-14 years, achieving and sustaining high coverage (>/=95%) among children aged 1 year with the first dose of a measles-containing vaccine, by introducing a routine second dose of measles-containing vaccine for children at age 5 years, and by improving measles surveillance. This catch-up campaign took place in November 2000: 867,000 doses of measles-rubella vaccine were administered for an estimated coverage of 99%. In all, 231 campaign-related adverse events were reported: syncope, 206; allergic reactions, 10; fever, 8; encephalitis/encephalopathy, 2; and aseptic meningitis, seizures, Guillain-Barré syndrome, anaphylaxis, and arthralgia, 1 each. All resolved without sequelae. This report describes the status of measles and rubella/congenital rubella syndrome control in Albania before 2000 and reports on implementation of the catch-up campaign.

Combined hepatitis B vaccines.

The status and likely impact of existing and potential new combined hepatitis B vaccines were broadly considered at the Viral Hepatitis Prevention Board (VHPB) meeting in Malta, October 2001. The currently available and/or licensed combined hepatitis B vaccines in Europe and the prospects for further such vaccines were reviewed. Data on the safety, immunogenicity, and European licensing status and availability of haxavalent vaccines combining hepatitis B (HepB), Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib), diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (acellular) (DTPa), and inactivated poliovirus (IPV) antigens were presented. Finally, the impact of the availability of combined hepatitis B vaccines on hepatitis B immunisation programmes in Europe were examined and the added value of combined hepatitis B vaccines globally was estimated.