Speeding up biomolecular interactions by molecular sledding.

Numerous biological processes involve association of a protein with its binding partner, an event that is preceded by a diffusion-mediated search bringing the two partners together. Often hindered by crowding in biologically relevant environments, three-dimensional diffusion can be slow and result in long bimolecular association times. Similarly, the initial association step between two binding partners often represents a rate-limiting step in biotechnologically relevant reactions. We demonstrate the practical use of an 11-a.a. DNA-interacting peptide derived from adenovirus to reduce the dimensionality of diffusional search processes and speed up associations between biological macromolecules. We functionalise binding partners with the peptide and demonstrate that the ability of the peptide to one-dimensionally diffuse along DNA results in a 20-fold reduction in reaction time. We also show that modifying PCR primers with the peptide sled enables significant acceleration of standard PCR reactions.

Molecular sled is an eleven-amino acid vehicle facilitating biochemical interactions via sliding components along DNA.

Recently, we showed the adenovirus proteinase interacts productively with its protein substrates in vitro and in vivo in nascent virus particles via one-dimensional diffusion along the viral DNA. The mechanism by which this occurs has heretofore been unknown. We show sliding of these proteins along DNA occurs on a new vehicle in molecular biology, a 'molecular sled' named pVIc. This 11-amino acid viral peptide binds to DNA independent of sequence. pVIc slides on DNA, exhibiting the fastest one-dimensional diffusion constant, 26±1.8 × 10(6) (bp)(2) s(-1). pVIc is a 'molecular sled,' because it can slide heterologous cargos along DNA, for example, a streptavidin tetramer. Similar peptides, for example, from the C terminus of ß-actin or NLSIII of the p53 protein, slide along DNA. Characteristics of the 'molecular sled' in its milieu (virion, nucleus) have implications for how proteins in the nucleus of cells interact and imply a new form of biochemistry, one-dimensional biochemistry.

Single-molecule imaging at high fluorophore concentrations by local activation of dye.

Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool for observing biomolecular interactions with high spatial and temporal resolution. Detecting fluorescent signals from individual labeled proteins above high levels of background fluorescence remains challenging, however. For this reason, the concentrations of labeled proteins in in vitro assays are often kept low compared to their in vivo concentrations. Here, we present a new fluorescence imaging technique by which single fluorescent molecules can be observed in real time at high, physiologically relevant concentrations. The technique requires a protein and its macromolecular substrate to be labeled each with a different fluorophore. Making use of short-distance energy-transfer mechanisms, only the fluorescence from those proteins that bind to their substrate is activated. This approach is demonstrated by labeling a DNA substrate with an intercalating stain, exciting the stain, and using energy transfer from the stain to activate the fluorescence of only those labeled DNA-binding proteins bound to the DNA. Such an experimental design allowed us to observe the sequence-independent interaction of Cy5-labeled interferon-inducible protein 16 with DNA and the sliding via one-dimensional diffusion of Cy5-labeled adenovirus protease on DNA in the presence of a background of hundreds of nanomolar Cy5 fluorophore.

Structure, function and dynamics in adenovirus maturation.

Here we review the current knowledge on maturation of adenovirus, a non-enveloped icosahedral eukaryotic virus. The adenovirus dsDNA genome fills the capsid in complex with a large amount of histone-like viral proteins, forming the core. Maturation involves proteolytic cleavage of several capsid and core precursor proteins by the viral protease (AVP). AVP uses a peptide cleaved from one of its targets as a "molecular sled" to slide on the viral genome and reach its substrates, in a remarkable example of one-dimensional chemistry. Immature adenovirus containing the precursor proteins lacks infectivity because of its inability to uncoat. The immature core is more compact and stable than the mature one, due to the condensing action of unprocessed core polypeptides; shell precursors underpin the vertex region and the connections between capsid and core. Maturation makes the virion metastable, priming it for stepwise uncoating by facilitating vertex release and loosening the condensed genome and its attachment to the icosahedral shell. The packaging scaffold protein L1 52/55k is also a substrate for AVP. Proteolytic processing of L1 52/55k disrupts its interactions with other virion components, providing a mechanism for its removal during maturation. Finally, possible roles for maturation of the terminal protein are discussed.

Processing of the l1 52/55k protein by the adenovirus protease: a new substrate and new insights into virion maturation.

Late in adenovirus assembly, the viral protease (AVP) becomes activated and cleaves multiple copies of three capsid and three core proteins. Proteolytic maturation is an absolute requirement to render the viral particle infectious. We show here that the L1 52/55k protein, which is present in empty capsids but not in mature virions and is required for genome packaging, is the seventh substrate for AVP. A new estimate on its copy number indicates that there are about 50 molecules of the L1 52/55k protein in the immature virus particle. Using a quasi-in vivo situation, i.e., the addition of recombinant AVP to mildly disrupted immature virus particles, we show that cleavage of L1 52/55k is DNA dependent, as is the cleavage of the other viral precursor proteins, and occurs at multiple sites, many not conforming to AVP consensus cleavage sites. Proteolytic processing of L1 52/55k disrupts its interactions with other capsid and core proteins, providing a mechanism for its removal during viral maturation. Our results support a model in which the role of L1 52/55k protein during assembly consists in tethering the viral core to the icosahedral shell and in which maturation proceeds simultaneously with packaging, before the viral particle is sealed.

First generation inhibitors of the adenovirus proteinase.

As there are more than 50 adenovirus serotypes, the likelihood of developing an effective vaccine is low. Here we describe inhibitors of the adenovirus proteinase (AVP) with the ultimate objective of developing anti-adenovirus agents. Inhibitors were identified via structure-based drug design using as druggable sites the active site and a conserved cofactor pocket in the crystal structures of AVP. A lead compound was identified that had an IC50 of 18 µM. One of eight structural derivatives of the lead compound had an IC50 of 140 nM against AVP and an IC50 of 490 nM against the AVP with its cofactor bound.

Regulation of a viral proteinase by a peptide and DNA in one-dimensional space: I. binding to DNA AND to hexon of the precursor to protein VI, pVI, of human adenovirus.

The precursor to adenovirus protein VI, pVI, is a multifunctional protein with different roles early and late in virus infection. Here, we focus on two roles late in infection, binding of pVI to DNA and to the major capsid protein hexon. pVI bound to DNA as a monomer independent of DNA sequence with an apparent equilibrium dissociation constant, K(d)((app)), of 46 nm. Bound to double-stranded DNA, one molecule of pVI occluded 8 bp. Upon the binding of pVI to DNA, three sodium ions were displaced from the DNA. A ΔG(0)(0) of -4.54 kcal/mol for the nonelectrostatic free energy of binding indicated that a substantial component of the binding free energy resulted from nonspecific interactions between pVI and DNA. The proteolytically processed, mature form of pVI, protein VI, also bound to DNA; its K(d)((app)) was much higher, 307 nm. The binding assays were performed in 1 mm MgCl(2) because in the absence of magnesium, the binding to pVI or protein VI to DNA was too tight to determine a K(d)((app)). Three molecules of pVI bound to one molecule of the hexon trimer with an equilibrium dissociation constant K(d)((app)) of 1.1 nm.

Regulation of a viral proteinase by a peptide and DNA in one-dimensional space: II. adenovirus proteinase is activated in an unusual one-dimensional biochemical reaction.

Late in an adenovirus infection, the viral proteinase (AVP) becomes activated to process virion precursor proteins used in virus assembly. AVP is activated by two cofactors, the viral DNA and pVIc, an 11-amino acid peptide originating from the C terminus of the precursor protein pVI. There is a conundrum in the activation of AVP in that AVP and pVI are sequence-independent DNA-binding proteins with nm equilibrium dissociation constants such that in the virus particle, they are predicted to be essentially irreversibly bound to the viral DNA. Here, we resolve that conundrum by showing that activation of AVP takes place on the one-dimensional contour of DNA. In vitro, pVI, a substrate, slides on DNA via one-dimensional diffusion, D(1) = 1.45 × 10(6) bp(2)/s, until it binds to AVP also on the same DNA molecule. AVP, partially activated by being bound to DNA, excises pVIc, which binds to the AVP molecule that cut it out. pVIc then forms a disulfide bond with AVP forming the fully active AVP-pVIc complex bound to DNA. In vivo, in heat-disrupted immature virus, AVP was also activated by pVI in DNA-dependent reactions. This activation mechanism illustrates a new paradigm for virion maturation and a new way, by sliding on DNA, for bimolecular complexes to form among proteins not involved in DNA metabolism.

Regulation of a viral proteinase by a peptide and DNA in one-dimensional space: IV. viral proteinase slides along DNA to locate and process its substrates.

Precursor proteins used in the assembly of adenovirus virions must be processed by the virally encoded adenovirus proteinase (AVP) before the virus particle becomes infectious. An activated adenovirus proteinase, the AVP-pVIc complex, was shown to slide along viral DNA with an extremely fast one-dimensional diffusion constant, 21.0 ± 1.9 × 10(6) bp(2)/s. In principle, one-dimensional diffusion can provide a means for DNA-bound proteinases to locate and process DNA-bound substrates. Here, we show that this is correct. In vitro, AVP-pVIc complexes processed a purified virion precursor protein in a DNA-dependent reaction; in a quasi in vivo environment, heat-disrupted ts-1 virions, AVP-pVIc complexes processed five different precursor proteins in DNA-dependent reactions. Sliding of AVP-pVIc complexes along DNA illustrates a new biochemical mechanism by which a proteinase can locate its substrates, represents a new paradigm for virion maturation, and reveals a new way of exploiting the surface of DNA.

Regulation of a viral proteinase by a peptide and DNA in one-dimensional space: III. atomic resolution structure of the nascent form of the adenovirus proteinase.

The adenovirus proteinase (AVP), the first member of a new class of cysteine proteinases, is essential for the production of infectious virus, and here we report its structure at 0.98 Å resolution. AVP, initially synthesized as an inactive enzyme, requires two cofactors for maximal activity: pVIc, an 11-amino acid peptide, and the viral DNA. Comparison of the structure of AVP with that of an active form, the AVP-pVIc complex, reveals why AVP is inactive. Both forms have an α + ß fold; the major structural differences between them lie in the ß-sheet domain. In AVP-pVIc, the general base His-54 Nδ1 is 3.9 Å away from the Cys-122 Sγ, thereby rendering it nucleophilic. In AVP, however, His-54 Nδ1 is 7.0 Å away from Cys-122 Sγ, too far away to be able to abstract the proton from Cys-122. In AVP-pVIc, Tyr-84 forms a cation-π interaction with His-54 that should raise the pK(a) of His-54 and freeze the imidazole ring in the place optimal for forming an ion pair with Cys-122. In AVP, however, Tyr-84 is more than 11 Å away from its position in AVP-pVIc. Based on the structural differences between AVP and AVP-pVIc, we present a model that postulates that activation of AVP by pVIc occurs via a 62-amino acid-long activation pathway in which the binding of pVIc initiates contiguous conformational changes, analogous to falling dominos. There is a common pathway that branches into a pathway that leads to the repositioning of His-54 and another pathway that leads to the repositioning of Tyr-84.

Nonspecifically bound proteins spin while diffusing along DNA.

It is known that DNA-binding proteins can slide along the DNA helix while searching for specific binding sites, but their path of motion remains obscure. Do these proteins undergo simple one-dimensional (1D) translational diffusion, or do they rotate to maintain a specific orientation with respect to the DNA helix? We measured 1D diffusion constants as a function of protein size while maintaining the DNA-protein interface. Using bootstrap analysis of single-molecule diffusion data, we compared the results to theoretical predictions for pure translational motion and rotation-coupled sliding along the DNA. The data indicate that DNA-binding proteins undergo rotation-coupled sliding along the DNA helix and can be described by a model of diffusion along the DNA helix on a rugged free-energy landscape. A similar analysis including the 1D diffusion constants of eight proteins of varying size shows that rotation-coupled sliding is a general phenomenon. The average free-energy barrier for sliding along the DNA was 1.1 +/- 0.2 k(B)T. Such small barriers facilitate rapid search for binding sites.

Structure and uncoating of immature adenovirus.

Maturation via proteolytic processing is a common trait in the viral world and is often accompanied by large conformational changes and rearrangements in the capsid. The adenovirus protease has been shown to play a dual role in the viral infectious cycle: (a) in maturation, as viral assembly starts with precursors to several of the structural proteins but ends with proteolytically processed versions in the mature virion, and (b) in entry, because protease-impaired viruses have difficulties in endosome escape and uncoating. Indeed, viruses that have not undergone proteolytic processing are not infectious. We studied the three-dimensional structure of immature adenovirus particles as represented by the adenovirus type 2 thermosensitive mutant ts1 grown under non-permissive conditions and compared it with the mature capsid. Our three-dimensional electron microscopy maps at subnanometer resolution indicate that adenovirus maturation does not involve large-scale conformational changes in the capsid. Difference maps reveal the locations of unprocessed peptides pIIIa and pVI and help define their role in capsid assembly and maturation. An intriguing difference appears in the core, indicating a more compact organization and increased stability of the immature cores. We have further investigated these properties by in vitro disassembly assays. Fluorescence and electron microscopy experiments reveal differences in the stability and uncoating of immature viruses, both at the capsid and core levels, as well as disassembly intermediates not previously imaged.

Assay for the adenovirus proteinase: purification of the enzyme and synthesis of a fluorogenic substrate.

Human adenovirus proteinase (AVP), the first member of a new class of cysteine proteinases, is required for the synthesis of infectious virus. As such, it is an attractive target for proteinase inhibitors that act as antiviral agents. However, before potential inhibitors can be screened, a quick, sensitive, and quantitative assay for the enzyme is required. Here, methods for purification of a recombinant AVP expressed in Escherichia coli are presented and a fluorogenic substrate is designed, synthesized, and purified and then used in the development of a quick, sensitive, and quantitative assay for the enzyme. The reporting group in the substrate is Rhodamine 110, possibly the most detectable compound known. The substrate contains the proteinase consensus cleavage sequence (Leu-Arg-Gly-Gly). The synthesis and purification of (Leu-Arg-Gly-Gly-NH)2-Rhodamine is described. It is then used to develop assays with AVP and its various cofactors. The resultant assays are quite sensitive; enzyme activity at low nanomolar concentrations can readily be detected.

Cofactors of the adenovirus proteinase: measuring equilibrium dissociation constants and stoichiometries of binding.

Human adenovirus proteinase (AVP) is required for the synthesis of infectious virus. AVP is synthesized in an inactive form; it is unusual in that it requires cofactors for activation of enzyme activity. Inside nascent virions, an 11-amino-acid peptide and the viral DNA are cofactors for activation; this enables the enzyme to cleave virion precursor proteins, rendering the virus particle infectious. In the cytoplasm, actin is a cofactor for activation, and an actin-AVP complex can cleave cytokeratin 18 and actin itself; this may prepare the infected cell for lysis. Experimental protocols are presented to determine stoichiometries of binding and equilibrium dissociation constants, Kd values, for the binding of pVc, DNA, or actin to AVP by changes in enzyme activity. Techniques are also presented for measuring stoichiometries of binding and Kd values for the binding of various lengths of DNA to AVP by changes in fluorescence polarization. Finally, the binding of different size classes of polymers of glutamic acid to AVP, the Kd values, and stoichiometries of binding are characterized by fluorescence polarization in an indirect assay involving competition with fluorescein-labeled DNA.

SARS CoV main proteinase: The monomer-dimer equilibrium dissociation constant.

The SARS coronavirus main proteinase (SARS CoV main proteinase) is required for the replication of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS CoV), the virus that causes SARS. One function of the enzyme is to process viral polyproteins. The active form of the SARS CoV main proteinase is a homodimer. In the literature, estimates of the monomer-dimer equilibrium dissociation constant, KD, have varied more than 65,0000-fold, from <1 nM to more than 200 microM. Because of these discrepancies and because compounds that interfere with activation of the enzyme by dimerization may be potential antiviral agents, we investigated the monomer-dimer equilibrium by three different techniques: small-angle X-ray scattering, chemical cross-linking, and enzyme kinetics. Analysis of small-angle X-ray scattering data from a series of measurements at different SARS CoV main proteinase concentrations yielded KD values of 5.8 +/- 0.8 microM (obtained from the entire scattering curve), 6.5 +/- 2.2 microM (obtained from the radii of gyration), and 6.8 +/- 1.5 microM (obtained from the forward scattering). The KD from chemical cross-linking was 12.7 +/- 1.1 microM, and from enzyme kinetics, it was 5.2 +/- 0.4 microM. While each of these three techniques can present different, potential limitations, they all yielded similar KD values.

Enzymatic activity of the SARS coronavirus main proteinase dimer.

The enzymatic activity of the SARS coronavirus main proteinase dimer was characterized by a sensitive, quantitative assay. The new, fluorogenic substrate, (Ala-Arg-Leu-Gln-NH)(2)-Rhodamine, contained a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS CoV) main proteinase consensus cleavage sequence and Rhodamine 110, one of the most detectable compounds known, as the reporter group. The gene for the enzyme was cloned in the absence of purification tags, expressed in Escherichia coli and the enzyme purified. Enzyme activity from the SARS CoV main proteinase dimer could readily be detected at low pM concentrations. The enzyme exhibited a high K(m), and is unusually sensitive to ionic strength and reducing agents.

Interaction of the adenovirus proteinase with protein cofactors with high negative charge densities.

The interactions of the human adenovirus proteinase (AVP) with polymers with high negative charge densities were characterized. AVP utilizes two viral cofactors for maximal enzyme activity (k(cat)/K(m)), the 11-amino acid peptide from the C-terminus of virion precursor protein pVI (pVIc) and the viral DNA. The viral DNA stimulates covalent AVP-pVIc complexes (AVP-pVIc) as a polyanion with a high negative charge density. Here, the interactions of AVP-pVIc with different polymers with high negative charge densities, polymers of glutamic acid (polyE), were characterized. The rate of substrate hydrolysis by AVP-pVIc increased with increasing concentrations of polyE. At higher concentrations of polyE, the increase in the rate of substrate hydrolysis approached saturation. Although glutamic acid did not stimulate enzyme activity, glutamic acid and NaCl could displace DNA from AVP-pVIc.(DNA) complexes; the K(i) values were 230 and 329 nM, respectively. PolyE binds to the DNA binding site on AVP-pVIc as polyE and DNA compete for binding to AVP-pVIc. The equilibrium dissociation constant for 1.3 kDa polyE binding to AVP-pVIc was 56 nM. On average, one molecule of AVP-pVIc binds to 12 residues in polyE. Comparison of polyE and 12-mer single-stranded DNA interacting with AVP-pVIc revealed the binding constants are similar, as are the Michaelis-Menten constants for substrate hydrolysis. The number of ion pairs formed upon the binding of 1.3 kDa polyE to AVP-pVIc was 2, and the nonelectrostatic change in free energy upon binding was -6.5 kcal. These observations may be physiologically relevant as they infer that AVP may bind to proteins that have regions of negative charge density. This would restrict activation of the enzyme to the locus of the cofactor within the cell.

DNA binding provides a molecular strap activating the adenovirus proteinase.

Human adenovirus proteinase (AVP) requires two cofactors for maximal activity: pVIc, a peptide derived from the C terminus of adenovirus precursor protein pVI, and the viral DNA. Synchrotron protein footprinting was used to map the solvent accessible cofactor binding sites and to identify conformational changes associated with the binding of cofactors to AVP. The binding of pVIc alone or pVIc and DNA together to AVP triggered significant conformational changes adjacent to the active site cleft sandwiched between the two AVP subdomains. In addition, upon binding of DNA to AVP, it was observed that specific residues on each of the two major subdomains were significantly protected from hydroxyl radicals. Based on the locations of these protected side-chain residues and conserved aromatic and positively charged residues within AVP, a three-dimensional model of DNA binding was constructed. The model indicated that DNA binding can alter the relative orientation of the two AVP domains leading to the partial activation of AVP by DNA. In addition, both pVIc and DNA may independently alter the active site conformation as well as drive it cooperatively to fully activate AVP.

Interaction of actin and its 11-amino acid C-terminal peptide as cofactors with the adenovirus proteinase.

Actin bound to the adenovirus proteinase (AVP) with a lower equilibrium dissociation constant, 4.2 nM, than those exhibited by two viral, nuclear cofactors for AVP, the 11-amino acid peptide pVIc and the viral DNA. The k(cat)/K(m) ratio for substrate hydrolysis by AVP increased 150,000-fold in the presence of actin. The 11-amino acid residue peptide corresponding to the C-terminus of actin, which is highly homologous to pVIc, bound to AVP and stimulated its activity in the presence of DNA. As a cellular cofactor for AVP, AVP(actin) complexes may facilitate the cleavage of cytoskeletal proteins, preparing the infected cell for lysis and release of nascent virions.

Nitric oxide inhibits the adenovirus proteinase in vitro and viral infectivity in vivo.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an antiviral effector of the innate immune system, but few of the viral targets of NO have been identified. We now show that NO inhibits adenovirus replication by targeting the adenovirus proteinase (AVP). NO generated from diethylamine NONOate (DEA-NONOate) or spermine NONOate (Sp-NONOate) inhibited the AVP. Inhibition was reversible with dithiothreitol. The equilibrium dissociation constant for reversible binding to the AVP by Sp-NONOate, or Ki, was 0.47 mM, and the first-order rate constant for irreversible inhibition of the AVP by Sp-NONOate, or ki, was 0.0036 s(-1). Two hallmarks of a successful adenovirus infection were abolished by the NO donors: the appearance of E1A protein and the cleavage of cytokeratin 18 by AVP. Treatment of infectious virus by DEA-NONOate dramatically decreased viral infectivity. These data suggest that NO may be a useful antiviral agent against viruses encoding a cysteine proteinase and in particular may be an antiadenovirus agent.