Autism risk gene Cul3 alters neuronal morphology via caspase-3 activity in mouse hippocampal neurons.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) in which children display differences in social interaction/communication and repetitive stereotyped behaviors along with variable associated features. Cul3, a gene linked to ASD, encodes CUL3 (CULLIN-3), a protein that serves as a key component of a ubiquitin ligase complex with unclear function in neurons. Cul3 homozygous deletion in mice is embryonic lethal; thus, we examine the role of Cul3 deletion in early synapse development and neuronal morphology in hippocampal primary neuronal cultures. Homozygous deletion of Cul3 significantly decreased dendritic complexity and dendritic length, as well as axon formation. Synaptic spine density significantly increased, mainly in thin and stubby spines along with decreased average spine volume in Cul3 knockouts. Both heterozygous and homozygous knockout of Cul3 caused significant reductions in the density and colocalization of gephyrin/vGAT puncta, providing evidence of decreased inhibitory synapse number, while excitatory synaptic puncta vGulT1/PSD95 density remained unchanged. Based on previous studies implicating elevated caspase-3 after Cul3 deletion, we demonstrated increased caspase-3 in our neuronal cultures and decreased neuronal cell viability. We then examined the efficacy of the caspase-3 inhibitor Z-DEVD-FMK to rescue the decrease in neuronal cell viability, demonstrating reversal of the cell viability phenotype with caspase-3 inhibition. Studies have also implicated caspase-3 in neuronal morphological changes. We found that caspase-3 inhibition largely reversed the dendrite, axon, and spine morphological changes along with the inhibitory synaptic puncta changes. Overall, these data provide additional evidence that Cul3 regulates the formation or maintenance of cell morphology, GABAergic synaptic puncta, and neuronal viability in developing hippocampal neurons in culture.

Clinical, genetic, and cognitive correlates of seizure occurrences in Phelan-McDermid syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) is a genetic neurodevelopmental disorder caused by SHANK3 haploinsufficiency and is associated with an increased risk for seizures. Previous literature indicates that around one third of individuals with PMS also have epilepsy or seizures, with a wide range of types and ages of onset. Investigating the impact of seizures on intellectual and adaptive functioning for PMS is a primary concern for caregivers and is important to understanding the natural history of this syndrome. METHODS: We report on results from 98 individuals enrolled in a prospective, longitudinal study. We detailed seizure frequency, type, and age of onset, and we analyzed seizure occurrence with best estimate IQ, adaptive functioning, clinical features, and genotype. We conducted multiple linear regression analyses to assess the relationship between the presence of seizures and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale, Second Edition (VABS-II) Adaptive Behavior Composite score and the best estimate full-scale IQ. We also performed Chi-square tests to explore associations between seizure prevalence and genetic groupings. Finally, we performed Chi-square tests and t-tests to explore the relationship between seizures and demographic features, features that manifest in infancy, and medical features. RESULTS: Seizures were present in 41% of the cohort, and age of onset was widely variable. The presence of seizures was associated with significantly lower adaptive and intellectual functioning. Genotype-phenotype analyses were discrepant, with no differences in seizure prevalence across genetic classes, but with more genes included in deletions of participants with 22q13 deletions and seizures compared to those with 22q13 deletions and no seizures. No clinical associations were found between the presence of seizures and sex, history of pre- or neonatal complications, early infancy, or medical features. In this cohort, generalized seizures were associated with developmental regression, which is a top concern for PMS caregivers. CONCLUSIONS: These results begin to eludicate correlates of seizures in individuals with PMS and highlight the importance of early seizure management. Importantly, presence of seizures was associated with adaptive and cognitive functioning. A larger cohort might be able to identify additional associations with medical features. Genetic findings suggest an increased capability to realize genotype-phenotype relationships when deletion size is taken into account.

Effects of heterozygous deletion of autism-related gene Cullin-3 in mice.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder in which children display repetitive behavior, restricted range of interests, and atypical social interaction and communication. CUL3, coding for a Cullin family scaffold protein mediating assembly of ubiquitin ligase complexes through BTB domain substrate-recruiting adaptors, has been identified as a high-risk gene for autism. Although complete knockout of Cul3 results in embryonic lethality, Cul3 heterozygous mice have reduced CUL3 protein, demonstrate comparable body weight, and display minimal behavioral differences including decreased spatial object recognition memory. In measures of reciprocal social interaction, Cul3 heterozygous mice behaved similarly to their wild-type littermates. In area CA1 of hippocampus, reduction of Cul3 significantly increased mEPSC frequency but not amplitude nor baseline evoked synaptic transmission or paired-pulse ratio. Sholl and spine analysis data suggest there is a small yet significant difference in CA1 pyramidal neuron dendritic branching and stubby spine density. Unbiased proteomic analysis of Cul3 heterozygous brain tissue revealed dysregulation of various cytoskeletal organization proteins, among others. Overall, our results suggest that Cul3 heterozygous deletion impairs spatial object recognition memory, alters cytoskeletal organization proteins, but does not cause major hippocampal neuronal morphology, functional, or behavioral abnormalities in adult global Cul3 heterozygous mice.

Reversal of memory and autism-related phenotypes in Tsc2+/- mice via inhibition of Nlgn1.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a rare monogenic disorder co-diagnosed with high rates of autism and is caused by loss of function mutations in the TSC1 or TSC2 genes. A key pathway hyperactivated in TSC is the mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which regulates cap-dependent mRNA translation. We previously demonstrated that exaggerated cap-dependent translation leads to autism-related phenotypes and increased mRNA translation and protein expression of Neuroligin 1 (Nlgn1) in mice. Inhibition of Nlgn1 expression reversed social behavior deficits in mice with increased cap-dependent translation. Herein, we report elevated translation of Nlgn1 mRNA and an increase in its protein expression. Genetic or pharmacological inhibition of Nlgn1 expression in Tsc2 +/- mice rescued impaired hippocampal mGluR-LTD, contextual discrimination and social behavior deficits in Tsc2 +/- mice, without correcting mTORC1 hyperactivation. Thus, we demonstrate that reduction of Nlgn1 expression in Tsc2 +/- mice is a new therapeutic strategy for TSC and potentially other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Large 22q13.3 deletions perturb peripheral transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles in Phelan-McDermid syndrome.

Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder caused at least in part by haploinsufficiency of the SHANK3 gene, due to sequence variants in SHANK3 or subtelomeric 22q13.3 deletions. Phenotypic differences have been reported between PMS participants carrying small "class I" mutations and large "class II" mutations; however, the molecular perturbations underlying these divergent phenotypes remain obscure. Using peripheral blood transcriptome and serum metabolome profiling, we examined the molecular perturbations in the peripheral circulation associated with a full spectrum of PMS genotypes spanning class I (n = 37) and class II mutations (n = 39). Transcriptomic data revealed 52 genes with blood expression profiles that tightly scale with 22q.13.3 deletion size. Furthermore, we uncover 208 underexpressed genes in PMS participants with class II mutations, which were unchanged in class I mutations. These genes were not linked to 22q13.3 and were strongly enriched for glycosphingolipid metabolism, NCAM1 interactions, and cytotoxic natural killer (NK) immune cell signatures. In silico predictions estimated a reduction in CD56+ CD16- NK cell proportions in class II mutations, which was validated by mass cytometry time of flight. Global metabolomics profiling identified 24 metabolites that were significantly altered in PMS participants with class II mutations and confirmed a general reduction in sphingolipid metabolism. Collectively, these results provide new evidence linking PMS participants carrying class II mutations with decreased expression of cytotoxic cell signatures, reduced relative proportions of NK cells, and lower sphingolipid metabolism. These findings highlight alternative avenues for therapeutic development and offer new mechanistic insights supporting genotype-to-phenotype associations in PMS.

"Déjà vu" in an autism gene mouse model modifies social mores.

Genetic and environmental factors during development are involved in autism, and in this issue of Neuron Krüttner et al. (2022) find environment may play a more acute role in modulating autism behavior in a Shank3 exon 21 deletion mutant mouse (Shank3ΔC/ΔC). The authors explore the underlying circuit mechanisms in detail.

Subcutaneous Administration of a Nitric Oxide-Releasing Nanomatrix Gel Ameliorates Obesity and Insulin Resistance in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous signaling molecule, which plays crucial roles in various biological processes, including inflammatory responses, metabolism, cardiovascular functions, and cognitive function. NO bioavailability is reduced with aging and cardiometabolic disorders in humans and rodents. NO stimulates the metabolic rate by increasing the mitochondrial biogenesis and brown fat activation. Therefore, we propose a novel technology of providing exogenous NO to improve the metabolic rate and cognitive function by promoting the development of brown adipose tissue. In the present study, we demonstrate the effects of the peptide amphiphiles-NO-releasing nanomatrix gel (PANO gel) on high-fat diet-induced obesity, insulin resistance, and cognitive functions. Eight-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were subcutaneously injected in the brown fat area with the PANO gel or vehicle (PA gel) every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. The PANO gel-injected mice gained less body weight, improved glucose tolerance, and decreased fasting serum insulin and leptin levels compared with the PA gel-injected mice. Insulin signaling in the muscle, liver, and epididymal white adipose tissue was improved by the PANO gel injection. The PANO gel reduced inflammation, increased lipolysis in the epididymal white adipose tissue, and decreased serum lipids and liver triglycerides. Interestingly, the PANO gel stimulated uncoupled protein 1 gene expression in the brown and beige fat tissues. Furthermore, the PANO gel increased the cerebral blood flow and improved learning and memory abilities. Our results suggest that using the PANO gel to supply exogenous NO is a novel technology to treat metabolic disorders and cognitive dysfunctions.

Phelan-McDermid syndrome: a classification system after 30 years of experience.

Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) was initially called the 22q13 deletion syndrome based on its etiology as a deletion of the distal long arm of chromosome 22. These included terminal and interstitial deletions, as well as other structural rearrangements. Later, pathogenetic variants and deletions of the SHANK3 gene were found to result in a phenotype consistent with PMS. The association between SHANK3 and PMS led investigators to consider disruption/deletion of SHANK3 to be a prerequisite for diagnosing PMS. This narrow definition of PMS based on the involvement of SHANK3 has the adverse effect of causing patients with interstitial deletions of chromosome 22 to "lose" their diagnosis. It also results in underreporting of individuals with interstitial deletions of 22q13 that preserve SHANK3. To reduce the confusion for families, clinicians, researchers, and pharma, a simple classification for PMS has been devised. PMS and will be further classified as PMS-SHANK3 related or PMS-SHANK3 unrelated. PMS can still be used as a general term, but this classification system is inclusive. It allows researchers, regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders to define SHANK3 alterations or interstitial deletions not affecting the SHANK3 coding region.

Strong evidence for genotype-phenotype correlations in Phelan-McDermid syndrome: results from the developmental synaptopathies consortium.

Individuals with Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) present with a wide range of developmental, medical, cognitive and behavioral abnormalities. Previous literature has begun to elucidate genotype-phenotype associations that may contribute to the wide spectrum of features. Here, we report results of genotype-phenotype associations in a cohort of 170 individuals with PMS. Genotypes were defined as Class I deletions (including SHANK3 only or SHANK3 with ARSA and/or ACR and RABL2B), Class II deletions (all other deletions) or sequence variants. Phenotype data were derived prospectively from direct evaluation, caregiver interview and questionnaires, and medical history. Analyses revealed individuals with Class I deletions or sequence variants had fewer delayed developmental milestones and higher cognitive ability compared to those with Class II deletions but had more skill regressions. Individuals with Class II deletions were more likely to have a variety of medical features, including renal abnormalities, spine abnormalities, and ataxic gait. Those with Class I deletions or sequence variants were more likely to have psychiatric diagnoses including bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia. Autism spectrum disorder diagnoses did not differ between groups. This study represents the largest and most rigorous genotype-phenotype analysis in PMS to date and provides important information for considering clinical functioning, trajectories and comorbidities as a function of specific genetic alteration.

Parent-reported measure of repetitive behavior in Phelan-McDermid syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Phelan McDermid syndrome (PMS) is a neurogenetic condition associated with a high prevalence of intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study provides a more comprehensive and quantitative profile of repetitive behaviors within the context of ID seen with the condition. METHODS: Individuals age 3-21 years with a confirmed PMS diagnosis participated in a multicenter observational study evaluating the phenotype and natural history of the disorder. We evaluated data collected from this study pertaining to repetitive behaviors from the Repetitive Behavior Scales-Revised (RBS-R). RESULTS: There were n = 90 participants who were part of this analysis. Forty-seven percent (n = 42/90) were female, and the average age at baseline evaluation was 8.88 ± 4.72 years. The mean best estimate IQ of the cohort was 26.08 ± 17.67 (range = 3.4-88), with n = 8 with mild ID (or no ID), n = 20 with moderate ID, and n = 62 with severe-profound ID. The RBS-R total overall score was 16.46 ± 13.9 (compared to 33.14 ± 20.60 reported in previous studies of ASD) (Lam and Aman, 2007), and the total number of items endorsed was 10.40 ± 6.81 (range = 0-29). After statistical correction for multiple comparisons, IQ correlated with the RBS-R stereotypic behavior subscale score (rs = - 0.33, unadjusted p = 0.0014, adjusted p = 0.01) and RBS-R stereotypic behavior total number of endorsed items (rs = - 0.32, unadjusted p = 0.0019, adjusted p = 0.01). IQ did not correlate with any other RBS-R subscale scores. CONCLUSIONS: The RBS-R total overall score in a PMS cohort appears milder compared to individuals with ASD characterized in previous studies. Stereotypic behavior in PMS may reflect cognitive functioning.

Neuropathological Effects of Chemotherapeutic Drugs.

Novel treatments, screening, and detection methods have prolonged the lives of numerous cancer patients worldwide. Unfortunately, existing and many promising new chemotherapeutics can cause deleterious, off-target side effects in normal tissue and organ systems. The central and peripheral nervous systems are widely recognized as frequent off-target effectors of anticancer drugs which can produce persistent neurological and neuropsychiatric symptoms collectively termed "chemobrain". Following chemotherapy, patients report several forms of cognitive impairment occurring acutely and sometimes persisting years after treatment. There are no effective treatments for cognitive decline induced by chemotherapeutics, and the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly characterized and understood. In this study, we find that chronic treatment with two common chemotherapeutic agents, cisplatin and gemcitabine, impairs brain region-specific metabolism, hippocampus-dependent memory formation, and stress response behavior. This corresponds to reduced hippocampal synaptic excitability, altered neuronal signal transduction, and neuroinflammation. These findings underline that a better understanding of the basic pathological consequences of chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment is the first step toward improving cancer treatment survivorship.

Shifted phase of EEG cross-frequency coupling in individuals with Phelan-McDermid syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Phelan-McDermid Syndrome (PMS) is a rare condition caused by deletion or mutation of the SHANK3 gene. Individuals with PMS frequently present with intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, and other neurodevelopmental challenges. Electroencephalography (EEG) can provide a window into network-level function in PMS. METHODS: Here, we analyze EEG data collected across multiple sites in individuals with PMS (n = 26) and typically developing individuals (n = 15). We quantify oscillatory power, alpha-gamma phase-amplitude coupling strength, and phase bias, a measure of the phase of cross frequency coupling thought to reflect the balance of feedforward (bottom-up) and feedback (top-down) activity. RESULTS: We find individuals with PMS display increased alpha-gamma phase bias (U = 3.841, p < 0.0005), predominantly over posterior electrodes. Most individuals with PMS demonstrate positive overall phase bias while most typically developing individuals demonstrate negative overall phase bias. Among individuals with PMS, strength of alpha-gamma phase-amplitude coupling was associated with Sameness, Ritualistic, and Compulsive behaviors as measured by the Repetitive Behavior Scales-Revised (Beta = 0.545, p = 0.011). CONCLUSIONS: Increased phase bias suggests potential circuit-level mechanisms underlying phenotype in PMS, offering opportunities for back-translation of findings into animal models and targeting in clinical trials.

Psychometric Study of the Social Responsiveness Scale in Phelan-McDermid Syndrome.

The Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2) is a quantitative measure used to characterize symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, research suggests that SRS-2 scores are significantly influenced by language ability and intellectual disability (ID). Efforts to refine the SRS-2 by Sturm, Kuhfeld, Kasari, and Mccracken [Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(9), 1053-1061] yielded a shortened form, yet its psychometric properties in populations with severe ID remain unknown. This study aims to examine the psychometric properties of the SRS-2 in Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS), a genetic condition associated with ASD and ID, thereby guiding score interpretation in this population and future development of targeted scales. Analyses, including Item Response Theory (IRT), were conducted on a sample of individuals with PMS (n = 91) recruited at six sites nationally. Psychometric properties evaluated include measures of reliability (internal consistency, test-retest reliability) and validity (structural, construct, content). While both SRS-2 forms are reliable, the shortened SRS-2 shows superior validity to the full SRS-2 for measuring ASD symptoms in PMS. On IRT analysis, the shortened SRS-2 shows excellent discrimination and precisely evaluates respondents across a wide range of ASD symptomatology but interpretation is limited by uncertain content validity and small sample size. The shortened SRS-2 shows some promise for use in PMS, but future refinements and additions are needed to develop items that are tailored to identify ASD in children with severe ID and specifically PMS. LAY SUMMARY: This study determined that a shortened form of the Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition (SRS-2) shows both promise and limitations for the characterization of autism symptomatology in individuals with Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS), a population characterized by intellectual disability (ID). Caution should be used when interpreting SRS-2 scores in individuals with ID and future research should modify existing items and develop new items to improve the SRS-2's ability to accurately characterize autism symptomatology in PMS. Autism Res 2020, 13: 1383-1396. © 2020 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Early Restoration of Shank3 Expression in Shank3 Knock-Out Mice Prevents Core ASD-Like Behavioral Phenotypes.

Several genes are associated with increased risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), neurodevelopmental disorders that present with repetitive movements and restricted interests along with deficits in social interaction/communication. While genetic alterations associated with ASD are present early in life, ASD-like behaviors are difficult to detect in early infancy. This raises the issue of whether reversal of an ASD-associated genetic alteration early in life can prevent the onset of ASD-like behaviors. Genetic alterations of SHANK3, a well-characterized gene encoding a postsynaptic scaffolding protein, are estimated to contribute to ∼0.5% of ASD and remain one of the more replicated and well-characterized genetic defects in ASD. Here, we investigate whether early genetic reversal of a Shank3 mutation can prevent the onset of ASD-like behaviors in a mouse model. Previously, we have demonstrated that mice deficient in Shank3 display a wide range of behavioral abnormalities such as repetitive grooming, social deficits, anxiety, and motor abnormalities. In this study, we replicate many of these behaviors in Shank3 mutant mice. With early genetic restoration of wild-type (WT) Shank3, we rescue behaviors including repetitive grooming and social, locomotor, and rearing deficits. Our findings support the idea that the underlying mechanisms involving ASD behaviors in mice deficient in Shank3 are susceptible to early genetic correction of Shank3 mutations.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging Abnormalities in the Uncinate Fasciculus and Inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus in Phelan-McDermid Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: This cohort study utilized diffusion tensor imaging tractography to compare the uncinate fasciculus and inferior longitudinal fasciculus in children with Phelan-McDermid syndrome with age-matched controls and investigated trends between autism spectrum diagnosis and the integrity of the uncinate fasciculus and inferior longitudinal fasciculus white matter tracts. METHODS: This research was conducted under a longitudinal study that aims to map the genotype, phenotype, and natural history of Phelan-McDermid syndrome and identify biomarkers using neuroimaging (ClinicalTrial NCT02461420). Patients were aged three to 21 years and underwent longitudinal neuropsychologic assessment over 24 months. MRI processing and analyses were completed using previously validated image analysis software distributed as the Computational Radiology Kit (http://crl.med.harvard.edu/). Whole-brain connectivity was generated for each subject using a stochastic streamline tractography algorithm, and automatically defined regions of interest were used to map the uncinate fasciculus and inferior longitudinal fasciculus. RESULTS: There were 10 participants (50% male; mean age 11.17 years) with Phelan-McDermid syndrome (n = 8 with autism). Age-matched controls, enrolled in a separate longitudinal study (NIH R01 NS079788), underwent the same neuroimaging protocol. There was a statistically significant decrease in the uncinate fasciculus fractional anisotropy measure and a statistically significant increase in uncinate fasciculus mean diffusivity measure, in the patient group versus controls in both right and left tracts (P ≤ 0.024). CONCLUSION: Because the uncinate fasciculus plays a critical role in social and emotional interaction, this tract may underlie some deficits seen in the Phelan-McDermid syndrome population. These findings need to be replicated in a larger cohort.

Apparent Genetic Rescue of Adult Shank3 Exon 21 Insertion Mutation Mice Tempered by Appropriate Control Experiments.

SHANK3 (ProSAP2) is among the most common genes mutated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and is the causative gene in Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS). We performed genetic rescue of Shank3 mutant phenotypes in adult mice expressing a Shank3 exon 21 insertion mutation (Shank3G ). We used a tamoxifen-inducible Cre/loxP system (CreTam ) to revert Shank3G to wild-type (WT) Shank3+/+ We found that tamoxifen treatment in adult Shank3GCreTam+ mice resulted in complete rescue of SHANK3 protein expression in the brain and appeared to rescue synaptic transmission and some behavioral differences compared to Shank3+/+CreTam+ controls. However, follow-up comparisons between vehicle-treated, WT Cre-negative mice (Shank3+/+CreTam- and Shank3+/+CreTam+) demonstrated clear effects of CreTam on baseline synaptic transmission and some behaviors, making apparently positive genetic reversal effects difficult to interpret. Thus, while the CreTam tamoxifen-inducible system is a powerful tool that successfully rescues Shank3 expression in our Shank3G/G reversible mutants, one must exercise caution and use appropriate control comparisons to ensure sound interpretation.

Volumetric Analysis of the Basal Ganglia and Cerebellar Structures in Patients with Phelan-McDermid Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Phelan-McDermid syndrome is caused by haploinsufficiency of SHANK3 on terminal chromosome 22. Knowledge about altered neuroanatomic circuitry in Phelan-McDermid syndrome comes from mouse models showing striatal hypertrophy in the basal ganglia, and from humans with evidence of cerebellar atrophy. To date, no studies have performed volumetric analysis on Phelan-McDermid syndrome patients. METHODS: We performed volumetric analysis of baseline brain MRIs of Phelan-McDermid syndrome patients (ages three to 21 years) enrolled in a prospective natural history study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02461420). Using MRI segmentations carried out with PSTAPLE algorithm, we measured relative volumes (volume of the structure divided by the volume of the brain parenchyma) of basal ganglia and cerebellar structures. We compared these measurements to those of age- and sex-matched healthy controls part of another study. Among the patients, we performed linear regression of each relative volume using Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised total score and Aberrant Behavior Checklist stereotypy score. Eleven patients with Phelan-McDermid syndrome (six females, five males) and 11 healthy controls were in this analysis. RESULTS: At time of MRI, the mean age of the patients and controls was 9.24 (5.29) years and 9.00 (4.49) years, respectively (P = 0.66). Compared to controls, patients had decreased caudate (P ≤ 0.013), putamen (P ≤ 0.026), and left pallidum (P = 0.033) relative volumes. Relative volume of cerebellar vermal lobules I to V (beta coefficient = -17119, P = 0.017) decreased with increasing Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised total score. CONCLUSIONS: The volumes of the striatum and left pallidum are decreased in individuals with Phelan-McDermid syndrome. Cerebellar vermis volume may predict repetitive behavior severity in Phelan-McDermid syndrome. These findings warrant further investigation in larger samples.

Genetic background effects in Neuroligin-3 mutant mice: Minimal behavioral abnormalities on C57 background.

Neuroligin-3 (NLGN3) is a postsynaptic cell adhesion protein that interacts with presynaptic ligands including neurexin-1 (NRXN1) [Ichtchenko et al., Journal of Biological Chemistry, 271, 2676-2682, 1996]. Mice harboring a mutation in the NLGN3 gene (NL3R451C) mimicking a mutation found in two brothers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were previously generated and behaviorally phenotyped for autism-related behaviors. In these NL3R451C mice generated and tested on a hybrid C57BL6J/129S2/SvPasCrl background, we observed enhanced spatial memory and reduced social interaction [Tabuchi et al., Science, 318, 71-76, 2007]. Curiously, an independently generated second line of mice harboring the same mutation on a C57BL6J background exhibited minimal aberrant behavior, thereby providing apparently discrepant results. To investigate the origin of the discrepancy, we previously replicated the original findings of Tabuchi et al. by studying the same NL3R451C mutation on a pure 129S2/SvPasCrl genetic background. Here we complete the behavioral characterization of the NL3R451C mutation on a pure C57BL6J genetic background to determine if background genetics play a role in the discrepant behavioral outcomes involving NL3R451C mice. NL3R451C mutant mice on a pure C57BL6J background did not display spatial memory enhancements or social interaction deficits. We only observed a decreased startle response and mildly increased locomotor activity in these mice suggesting that background genetics influences behavioral outcomes involving the NL3R451C mutation. Autism Res 2018, 11: 234-244. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: Behavioral symptoms of autism can be highly variable, even in cases that involve identical genetic mutations. Previous studies in mice with a mutation of the Neuroligin-3 gene showed enhanced learning and social deficits. We replicated these findings on the same and different genetic backgrounds. In this study, however, the same mutation in mice on a different genetic background did not reproduce our previous findings. Our results suggest that genetic background influences behavioral symptoms of this autism-associated mutation.

Kctd13 deletion reduces synaptic transmission via increased RhoA.

Copy-number variants of chromosome 16 region 16p11.2 are linked to neuropsychiatric disorders and are among the most prevalent in autism spectrum disorders. Of many 16p11.2 genes, Kctd13 has been implicated as a major driver of neurodevelopmental phenotypes. The function of KCTD13 in the mammalian brain, however, remains unknown. Here we delete the Kctd13 gene in mice and demonstrate reduced synaptic transmission. Reduced synaptic transmission correlates with increased levels of Ras homolog gene family, member A (RhoA), a KCTD13/CUL3 ubiquitin ligase substrate, and is reversed by RhoA inhibition, suggesting increased RhoA as an important mechanism. In contrast to a previous knockdown study, deletion of Kctd13 or kctd13 does not increase brain size or neurogenesis in mice or zebrafish, respectively. These findings implicate Kctd13 in the regulation of neuronal function relevant to neuropsychiatric disorders and clarify the role of Kctd13 in neurogenesis and brain size. Our data also reveal a potential role for RhoA as a therapeutic target in disorders associated with KCTD13 deletion.

Foxp1 in Forebrain Pyramidal Neurons Controls Gene Expression Required for Spatial Learning and Synaptic Plasticity.

Genetic perturbations of the transcription factor Forkhead Box P1 (FOXP1) are causative for severe forms of autism spectrum disorder that are often comorbid with intellectual disability. Recent work has begun to reveal an important role for FoxP1 in brain development, but the brain-region-specific contributions of Foxp1 to autism and intellectual disability phenotypes have yet to be determined fully. Here, we describe Foxp1 conditional knock-out (Foxp1cKO) male and female mice with loss of Foxp1 in the pyramidal neurons of the neocortex and the CA1/CA2 subfields of the hippocampus. Foxp1cKO mice exhibit behavioral phenotypes that are of potential relevance to autism spectrum disorder, including hyperactivity, increased anxiety, communication impairments, and decreased sociability. In addition, Foxp1cKO mice have gross deficits in learning and memory tasks of relevance to intellectual disability. Using a genome-wide approach, we identified differentially expressed genes in the hippocampus of Foxp1cKO mice associated with synaptic function and development. Furthermore, using magnetic resonance imaging, we uncovered a significant reduction in the volumes of both the entire hippocampus as well as individual hippocampal subfields of Foxp1cKO mice. Finally, we observed reduced maintenance of LTP in area CA1 of the hippocampus in these mutant mice. Together, these data suggest that proper expression of Foxp1 in the pyramidal neurons of the forebrain is important for regulating gene expression pathways that contribute to specific behaviors reminiscent of those seen in autism and intellectual disability. In particular, Foxp1 regulation of gene expression appears to be crucial for normal hippocampal development, CA1 plasticity, and spatial learning.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Loss-of-function mutations in the transcription factor Forkhead Box P1 (FOXP1) lead to autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Understanding the potential brain-region-specific contributions of FOXP1 to disease-relevant phenotypes could be a critical first step in the management of patients with these mutations. Here, we report that Foxp1 conditional knock-out (Foxp1cKO) mice with loss of Foxp1 in the neocortex and hippocampus display autism and intellectual-disability-relevant behaviors. We also show that these phenotypes correlate with changes in both the genomic and physiological profiles of the hippocampus in Foxp1cKO mice. Our work demonstrates that brain-region-specific FOXP1 expression may relate to distinct, clinically relevant phenotypes.