Pseudomonas aeruginosa breaches respiratory epithelia through goblet cell invasion in a microtissue model.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a leading cause of severe hospital-acquired pneumonia, causes infections with up to 50% mortality rates in mechanically ventilated patients. Despite some knowledge of virulence factors involved, it remains unclear how P. aeruginosa disseminates on mucosal surfaces and invades the tissue barrier. Using infection of human respiratory epithelium organoids, here we observed that P. aeruginosa colonization of apical surfaces is promoted by cyclic di-GMP-dependent asymmetric division. Infection with mutant strains revealed that Type 6 Secretion System activities promote preferential invasion of goblet cells. Type 3 Secretion System activity by intracellular bacteria induced goblet cell death and expulsion, leading to epithelial rupture which increased bacterial translocation and dissemination to the basolateral epithelium. These findings show that under physiological conditions, P. aeruginosa uses coordinated activity of a specific combination of virulence factors and behaviours to invade goblet cells and breach the epithelial barrier from within, revealing mechanistic insight into lung infection dynamics.

The large GTPase Sey1/atlastin mediates lipid droplet- and FadL-dependent intracellular fatty acid metabolism of Legionella pneumophila.

The amoeba-resistant bacterium Legionella pneumophila causes Legionnaires' disease and employs a type IV secretion system (T4SS) to replicate in the unique, ER-associated Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). The large fusion GTPase Sey1/atlastin is implicated in ER dynamics, ER-derived lipid droplet (LD) formation, and LCV maturation. Here, we employ cryo-electron tomography, confocal microscopy, proteomics, and isotopologue profiling to analyze LCV-LD interactions in the genetically tractable amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Dually fluorescence-labeled D. discoideum producing LCV and LD markers revealed that Sey1 as well as the L. pneumophila T4SS and the Ran GTPase activator LegG1 promote LCV-LD interactions. In vitro reconstitution using purified LCVs and LDs from parental or Δsey1 mutant D. discoideum indicated that Sey1 and GTP promote this process. Sey1 and the L. pneumophila fatty acid transporter FadL were implicated in palmitate catabolism and palmitate-dependent intracellular growth. Taken together, our results reveal that Sey1 and LegG1 mediate LD- and FadL-dependent fatty acid metabolism of intracellular L. pneumophila.

Dictyostelium lacking the single atlastin homolog Sey1 shows aberrant ER architecture, proteolytic processes and expansion of the Legionella-containing vacuole.

Dictyostelium discoideum Sey1 is the single ortholog of mammalian atlastin 1-3 (ATL1-3), which are large homodimeric GTPases mediating homotypic fusion of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) tubules. In this study, we generated a D. discoideum mutant strain lacking the sey1 gene and found that amoebae deleted for sey1 are enlarged, but grow and develop similarly to the parental strain. The ∆sey1 mutant amoebae showed an altered ER architecture, and the tubular ER network was partially disrupted without any major consequences for other organelles or the architecture of the secretory and endocytic pathways. Macropinocytic and phagocytic functions were preserved; however, the mutant amoebae exhibited cumulative defects in lysosomal enzymes exocytosis, intracellular proteolysis, and cell motility, resulting in impaired growth on bacterial lawns. Moreover, ∆sey1 mutant cells showed a constitutive activation of the unfolded protein response pathway (UPR), but they still readily adapted to moderate levels of ER stress, while unable to cope with prolonged stress. In D. discoideum ∆sey1 the formation of the ER-associated compartment harbouring the bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila was also impaired. In the mutant amoebae, the ER was less efficiently recruited to the "Legionella-containing vacuole" (LCV), the expansion of the pathogen vacuole was inhibited at early stages of infection and intracellular bacterial growth was reduced. In summary, our study establishes a role of D. discoideum Sey1 in ER architecture, proteolysis, cell motility and intracellular replication of L. pneumophila.

Phosphoinositides and the Fate of Legionella in Phagocytes.

Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of a severe pneumonia called Legionnaires' disease. The environmental bacterium replicates in free-living amoebae as well as in lung macrophages in a distinct compartment, the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). The LCV communicates with a number of cellular vesicle trafficking pathways and is formed by a plethora of secreted bacterial effector proteins, which target host cell proteins and lipids. Phosphoinositide (PI) lipids are pivotal determinants of organelle identity, membrane dynamics and vesicle trafficking. Accordingly, eukaryotic cells tightly regulate the production, turnover, interconversion, and localization of PI lipids. L. pneumophila modulates the PI pattern in infected cells for its own benefit by (i) recruiting PI-decorated vesicles, (ii) producing effectors acting as PI interactors, phosphatases, kinases or phospholipases, and (iii) subverting host PI metabolizing enzymes. The PI conversion from PtdIns(3)P to PtdIns(4)P represents a decisive step during LCV maturation. In this review, we summarize recent progress on elucidating the strategies, by which L. pneumophila subverts host PI lipids to promote LCV formation and intracellular replication.

Divergent Evolution of Legionella RCC1 Repeat Effectors Defines the Range of Ran GTPase Cycle Targets.

Legionella pneumophila governs its interactions with host cells by secreting >300 different "effector" proteins. Some of these effectors contain eukaryotic domains such as the RCC1 (regulator of chromosome condensation 1) repeats promoting the activation of the small GTPase Ran. In this report, we reveal a conserved pattern of L. pneumophila RCC1 repeat genes, which are distributed in two main clusters of strains. Accordingly, strain Philadelphia-1 contains two RCC1 genes implicated in bacterial virulence, legG1 (Legionella eukaryotic gene 1), and ppgA, while strain Paris contains only one, pieG The RCC1 repeat effectors localize to different cellular compartments and bind distinct components of the Ran GTPase cycle, including Ran modulators and the small GTPase itself, and yet they all promote the activation of Ran. The pieG gene spans the corresponding open reading frames of legG1 and a separate adjacent upstream gene, lpg1975legG1 and lpg1975 are fused upon addition of a single nucleotide to encode a protein that adopts the binding specificity of PieG. Thus, a point mutation in pieG splits the gene, altering the effector target. These results indicate that divergent evolution of RCC1 repeat effectors defines the Ran GTPase cycle targets and that modulation of different components of the cycle might fine-tune Ran activation during Legionella infection.IMPORTANCELegionella pneumophila is a ubiquitous environmental bacterium which, upon inhalation, causes a life-threatening pneumonia termed Legionnaires' disease. The opportunistic pathogen grows in amoebae and macrophages by employing a "type IV" secretion system, which secretes more than 300 different "effector" proteins into the host cell, where they subvert pivotal processes. The function of many of these effector proteins is unknown, and their evolution has not been studied. L. pneumophila RCC1 repeat effectors target the small GTPase Ran, a molecular switch implicated in different cellular processes such as nucleocytoplasmic transport and microtubule cytoskeleton dynamics. We provide evidence that one or more RCC1 repeat genes are distributed in two main clusters of L. pneumophila strains and have divergently evolved to target different components of the Ran GTPase activation cycle at different subcellular sites. Thus, L. pneumophila employs a sophisticated strategy to subvert host cell Ran GTPase during infection.

Perturbation of Legionella Cell Infection by RNA Interference.

Legionella pneumophila is a facultative intracellular bacterium, which grows in amoebae as well as in macrophages and epithelial cells. Depletion of genes of interest by RNA interference (RNAi) has proven to be a robust and economic technique to study L. pneumophila-host cell interactions. Predesigned and often validated double-stranded (ds) RNA oligonucleotides that silence specific genes are commercially available. RNAi results in a reduced level of distinct proteins, which allows studying the specific role of host cell components involved in L. pneumophila infection. Here, we describe how to assess RNAi-mediated protein depletion efficiency and cytotoxic effects in human A549 lung epithelial cells and murine RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, we demonstrate how RNAi can be used to screen for novel host cell proteins involved in the formation of the Legionella-containing vacuole and intracellular replication of the pathogen.

Acanthamoeba and Dictyostelium as Cellular Models for Legionella Infection.

Environmental bacteria of the genus Legionella naturally parasitize free-living amoebae. Upon inhalation of bacteria-laden aerosols, the opportunistic pathogens grow intracellularly in alveolar macrophages and can cause a life-threatening pneumonia termed Legionnaires' disease. Intracellular replication in amoebae and macrophages takes place in a unique membrane-bound compartment, the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). LCV formation requires the bacterial Icm/Dot type IV secretion system, which translocates literally hundreds of "effector" proteins into host cells, where they modulate crucial cellular processes for the pathogen's benefit. The mechanism of LCV formation appears to be evolutionarily conserved, and therefore, amoebae are not only ecologically significant niches for Legionella spp., but also useful cellular models for eukaryotic phagocytes. In particular, Acanthamoeba castellanii and Dictyostelium discoideum emerged over the last years as versatile and powerful models. Using genetic, biochemical and cell biological approaches, molecular interactions between amoebae and Legionella pneumophila have recently been investigated in detail with a focus on the role of phosphoinositide lipids, small and large GTPases, autophagy components and the retromer complex, as well as on bacterial effectors targeting these host factors.

Structural insights into Legionella RidL-Vps29 retromer subunit interaction reveal displacement of the regulator TBC1D5.

Legionella pneumophila can cause Legionnaires' disease and replicates intracellularly in a distinct Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). LCV formation is a complex process that involves a plethora of type IV-secreted effector proteins. The effector RidL binds the Vps29 retromer subunit, blocks retrograde vesicle trafficking, and promotes intracellular bacterial replication. Here, we reveal that the 29-kDa N-terminal domain of RidL (RidL2-281) adopts a "foot-like" fold comprising a protruding ß-hairpin at its "heel". The deletion of the ß-hairpin, the exchange to Glu of Ile170 in the ß-hairpin, or Leu152 in Vps29 abolishes the interaction in eukaryotic cells and in vitro. RidL2-281 or RidL displace the Rab7 GTPase-activating protein (GAP) TBC1D5 from the retromer and LCVs, respectively, and TBC1D5 promotes the intracellular growth of L. pneumophila. Thus, the hydrophobic ß-hairpin of RidL is critical for binding of the L. pneumophila effector to the Vps29 retromer subunit and displacement of the regulator TBC1D5.

Salmonella enterica Remodels the Host Cell Endosomal System for Efficient Intravacuolar Nutrition.

Salmonella enterica is a facultative intracellular pathogen that survives and proliferates in the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV), yet how these vacuolar bacteria acquire nutrition remains to be determined. Intracellular Salmonella convert the host endosomal system into an extensive network of interconnected tubular vesicles, of which Salmonella-induced filaments (SIFs) are the most prominent. We found that membranes and lumen of SIFs and SCVs form a continuum, giving vacuolar Salmonella access to various types of endocytosed material. Membrane proteins and luminal content rapidly diffuse between SIFs and SCVs. Salmonella in SCVs without connection to SIFs have reduced access to endocytosed components. On a single-cell level, Salmonella within the SCV-SIF continuum were found to exhibit higher metabolic activity than vacuolar bacteria lacking SIFs. Our data demonstrate that formation of the SCV-SIF continuum allows Salmonella to bypass nutritional restriction in the intracellular environment by acquiring nutrients from the host cell endosomal system.

Interactions of Salmonella enterica with dendritic cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs) form an important link between innate and adaptive immunity. However, DCs are also deployed as vehicles for systemic spread of pathogens. Salmonella is an important gastrointestinal pathogen causing diseases ranging from gastroenteritis to typhoid fever. DCs play an important role in the immunity against Salmonella infection, but this pathogen has also evolved efficient mechanisms to persist after phagocytosis by DCs, to spread using DCs as vehicles and to interfere with the central function of DCs, the processing of antigens and presentation of antigen-derived peptides to T cells for the stimulation of adaptive immune responses. Here we review the routes used by Salmonella to breach intestinal barriers, the intracellular habitat of Salmonella in DCs, molecular mechanisms of Salmonella virulence factors for intracellular life and intracellular activities in DCs resulting in manipulation of DC functions.