Extraction, characterization, and use of edible insect oil - A review.

Population growth is driving the search for new food sources, including entomophagy, i.e., a diet based on edible insects. Insect powder are rich in essential fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds such as antioxidant phenolics. The technologies for extracting oil from insects must be efficient to guarantee high yields. This oil due to its favorable nutritional profile, and lower cost, can be a viable alternative to vegetable and fish oils. Although common in some cultures, the consumption of insects faces resistance in others due to its association with dirt. Efforts are being made to scientifically demonstrate the safety and nutritional benefits of insects as well as their sustainability as a food source. This first review of insect oils focuses on presenting their different characteristics and encouraging the production and use of these products in the food, pharmaceutical, or cosmetics industries.

Extraction and application of lipids from edible insects.

Research on new food sources is a worldwide challenge due to the constant increase in the global population. In this scenario, insects and bug based products have been investigated as feasible food alternatives. They are nutritionally healthy and environmentally sustainable. Eating insects (entomophagy) or utilizing their macronutrients in food formulations can efficiently solve the demand for nutritious food. The benefits of insect-based foods are reported in the literature, mainly because they are viable sources of fat (∼38%) and proteins (∼68%). Fats and oils are recognized as essential nutrients in human nutrition, as they provide a concentrated source of energy and act as structural components of cell membranes and signaling pathways. The high levels of fats/oils of edible insects open the perspective in the food industry to be used as ingredients in the enrichment of several products, such as cookies, biscuits, butter, and margarine, among others, thus contributing to consumer acceptance. Insect fat/oil can be obtained using extraction techniques, such as solvent and supercritical CO2 methods. The method depends on the insect species, fat/oil yield, and process costs. Thus, this review aims to provide current information on the consumption, application, and extraction of edible insect oils.

¿Qué se está investigando sobre insectos comestibles? Un análisis bibliométrico de las publicaciones entre 1990 y 2022

Este artículo presenta una visión general relacionada con las publicaciones científicas sobre insectos para consumo humano a través de un análisis bibliométrico utilizando datos extraídos de la base de datos Web of Science en un período de tiempo comprendido entre 1990 y 2022 cubriendo más de 30 años de producción científica. Los resultados se presentan en forma de tablas, gráficos y diagramas con diferentes tipos de mapeo obtenidos mediante el uso de paquetes específicos para el análisis de las relaciones bibliométricas como VoS Viewer y el paquete de R Bibliometrix. De acuerdo con la clasificación de las áreas de conocimiento en WoS, la mayoría de los artículos se encuentran principalmente en los segmentos de tecnología de los alimentos, la entomología, la agricultura multidisciplinar con trabajos que van desde los aspectos ambientales, la composición química, y la percepción sensorial, entre otros. Los países con mayor influencia en el tema son Italia, EE.UU. y Corea del Sur con el mayor número de publicaciones en el área. Por otro lado, los autores con mayores métricas son Kinyuru, JN (Kenia), Choi, YS, (Corea del Sur) y Aquilanti, L, (Italia). Las revistas con mayor productividad en insectos comestibles son Journal of insects as food and feed, Foods e Insects con un número de publicaciones de 217, 107 y 61 respectivamente. Finalmente, las conclusiones de este trabajo permiten establecer rutas a seguir para los investigadores en el campo de los insectos comestibles para la alimentación humana como por ejemplo que documentos son más importantes, donde publicar y en que países e instituciones el tema se encuentra mas desarrollado.

This article presents an overview of scientific publications on insects for human consumption through a bibliometric analysis using data extracted from the Web of Science database from 1990 to 2022, covering more than 30 years of scientific production. The results are presented in tables, graphs, and diagrams with different types of mapping obtained by using specific packages to analyze bibliometric relationships, such as VOSviewer and the R-package Bibliometrics. According to the classification of areas of knowledge in WoS, most articles are mainly in food science technology, entomology, and multidisciplinary agriculture, with works ranging from environmental aspects, chemical composition, and sensory perception, among others. The countries with the most significant influence on the subject are Italy, the USA, and South Korea, with the highest number of publications in the area. On the other hand, the authors with the highest metrics are J.N. Kinyuru (Kenya), Y.S. Choi (South Korea), and L. Aquilanti (Italy). The journals with the highest productivity in edible insects are the Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, Foods, and Insects, with several publications of 217, 107, and 61, respectively. Finally, the conclusions of this work allow establishing routes to follow for researchers in the field of edible insects, such as which papers are most important, where to publish and in which countries and institutions the topic is most developed.

Nutritional composition and techno-functionality of non-defatted and defatted flour of edible insect Arsenura armida.

Edible insects are traditional foods worldwide, and in Mexico, is a prehispanic practice. Nowadays, edible insects can be a food source for the increasing population. This research aimed to evaluate the nutritional profile, physical and techno-functional characteristics of non-defatted (NDF) and defatted (DF) flour of the edible insect Arsenura armida to use as a functional ingredient. The lipid content in NDF was 24.18%. Both flours are high in protein, 20.36% in NDF and 46.89% in DF; their soluble proteins from A. armida were classified according to their molecular weight, which ranged from 12 to 94 kDa. The physical properties suggest that both flours have good flow characteristics. Regarding techno-functional properties, DF had the highest water (275.6%) and oil (121%) holding capacity values. The viscosity values indicate that they behave as a non-Newtonian shear-thinning fluid at a high concentration (20%). Emulsion capacity values range between 78.3 and 100% in both flours, with stability between 92.4 and 100%. These flours could be a good source of nutrients, and their techno-functional properties make them a good option for animal protein substitutes.

Amazonian Invertebrates in the Traditional diet of the Paiter Suruí in Southeastern Brazil.

The Paiter Suruí people in the southwestern Brazilian Amazon have a complex food system that includes insects and crustaceans. We designed our study to systematize data about the invertebrates they incorporate into their traditional diet. After conducting a review of the literature, we verified and expanded the data through semi-structured interviews with Paiter Suruí volunteers, and traced trends in their consumption of invertebrates. We identified 61 invertebrates, including 58 insects of the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and three crustaceans. While beetle larvae remain a popular choice, consumption of other insects and crustaceans seems to have diminished over time.

Insects as source of phenolic and antioxidant entomochemicals in the food industry.

Edible insects are a natural resource with profound interest in the food industry. Not only because of their nutritional content and technical production advantage, but also for the presence of bioactive compounds known as entomochemicals. These include phenolic, alkaloid, and terpenoid compounds, as well as amino acids derivatives, among others. This work is focused on phenolic compounds, which have been the best characterized due to their role in food development and bioactive properties. The major taxonomic orders studied in this regard include Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, whose edible specimens have antioxidant effects provided by the phenolic compounds contained therein. The use of these insects in the development of nutritious foods will enhance the number of options available for the human population. However, depth research is still needed to guarantee the aforementioned bioactivity in processed foods and ensure its innocuity, thus minimizing the risk of allergic reactions and allowing the full utilization of edible insect species in the food industry. Phenolic derived from edible insects portray an opportunity to improve high quality food, as an alternative to diversify and complement an adequate and functional diet. Future development foods supplemented with insects must consider the preservation of potential benefits of not only nutrients, also de nutraceuticals.

When Do We Start Caring About Insect Welfare?

The world is facing an incoming global protein shortage due to existing malnutrition and further rapid increases in population size. It will however be difficult to greatly expand traditional methods of protein production such as cattle, chicken and pig farming, due to space limitations and environmental costs such as deforestation. As a result, alternative sources of protein that require less space and fewer resources, such as insects and other invertebrates, are being sought. The Neotropics are a key area of focus given the widespread prevalence of entomophagy and developing animal welfare regulations. Unlike vertebrate livestock however, insect "minilivestock" are typically not protected by existing animal welfare regulations. This is despite the fact that the evidence is mounting that insects possess "personalities", may experience affective states analogous to emotions and feel something like pain. In this forum article, we highlight this discrepancy, outline some of the emerging research on the topic and identify areas for future research. There are various empirical and ethical questions that must be addressed urgently while insect farming is ramped up around the globe. Finally, we describe the benefits and also potential costs of regulation for insect welfare.

Consumption of cricket (Acheta domesticus) flour decreases insulin resistance and fat accumulation in rats fed with high-fat and -fructose diet.

The consumption of cricket (Acheta domesticus, AD) has recently increased due to its high nutritional and bioactive compound contents. However, limited studies have explored the beneficial effects of AD consumption. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the protective effect of a diet supplemented with AD flour on obesity control and its complications in an in vivo model. The chemical profiling of the AD showed an important protein content, chitin, and polyunsaturated fatty acids contents. For the in vivo study, a high-fructose and saturated fat diet (HFFD) was supplemented with AD (4% and 8%). The 8% AD supplementation reduced body weight gain (19%) and serum triglycerides (37%) in HFFD-fed rats. These benefits were related to a greater lipid excretion in feces (97%) and the partial inhibition of pancreatic lipase in vitro by the aqueous extract and the hydrolyzed proteins obtained from AD. Additionally, the 8% AD supplementation improved insulin resistance measured by the HOMA index (61%). Thus, 8% AD supplementation to HFFD-fed rats was effective in preventing obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Obesity is a risk factor for developing insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in consuming foods rich in bioactive compounds as therapeutic alternatives for managing the development of obesity and its complications. Edible insects, such as crickets, are attractive for treating obesity due to their content of protein, fiber, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Studies have explored the effect of glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-enriched extracts from the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus against obesity. However, GAG content in crickets is low, and crickets are commonly consumed whole instead of extracts. The cricket Acheta domesticus (AD) is among the most rearing cricket species as it is easy to farm and has a better flavor. However, limited studies have explored the beneficial effects of AD consumption. This study demonstrates that AD prevents obesity and ameliorates dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Therefore, AD is a valuable entomotherapeutic strategy to reduce the comorbidities associated with diet-induced obesity.

Edible Insects in Latin America: A Sustainable Alternative for Our Food Security.

Nowadays, the food industry faces paramount challenges in different areas, since worldwide consumers are increasing every day, and at the same time, they are demanding new convenient products. Recent studies show that the current food production system is unsustainable over time and therefore is necessary to create new alternatives of production. New food trends are focused on the consumption of natural products, that have an eco-friendly production approach, and a beneficial nutritional profile for the consumer's health. Hence, products are being created to not only have good organoleptic characteristics, but also to contain a wide variety of micro and macronutrients, and to be sustainable within their production. For this reason, the use of raw materials that satisfy the needs previously mentioned is being implemented. For instance, the use of insects as raw material, because they have a high protein content comparable to animal-based foods. Specifically, ants and crickets can contain between 9 and 77% protein of dry weight, while beef contains between 25 and 28%. On the other hand, insects present an ease and sustainable production system, compared to livestock farming, since some of them feed with food waste generated by humans. In addition, require less food for their upbringing; insects can convert 2 kg of feed into 1 kg of insect mass, while cattle use 8 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of body weight. On the other hand, there is evidence that insects produce fewer greenhouse gases during their production, for example, pigs produce between 10 and 100 times more greenhouse gases per kg of weight. United States, Mexico, Chile, Peru, and Argentina have begun to develop and consume these products; thus, promoting different and new ventures. Large-scale production of insect-based food products could help solve or even prevent the looming food problem and contribute to the sustainable development goals set by the United Nations. Thus, the aim of this review work was to compile and investigate the edible insect's alternatives in Latin America, as well as the commercially available or potential derivative products. We discussed the nutritional value of edible insects, and how they could contribute to food security.

Nutritional Composition, Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Different Samples of Water Boatmen Eggs (Hemiptera: Corixidae).

The group of aquatic insects collectively called "water boatmen" or "Axayacatl" (Hemiptera: Corixidae) and their eggs, called "Ahuahutle", have been consumed and cultivated since the pre-Hispanic era in Mexico. Nevertheless, food composition databases contain limited information on the nutritional composition of these eggs. This work evaluates the macronutrients and bioactive compounds of water boatmen eggs obtained from three different locations in Mexico. The primary analyses to be determined for the first time were some bioactive compounds in the eggs, such as phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, condensed tannins content, antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS), and, additionally, fatty acids and proximal composition. The results showed that the sample from Hidalgo (AMC) presented the highest number of phenolic compounds (855.12 ± 0.52), followed by ALT (125.52 ± 0.05) and, with the lowest amount, AMT (99.92 ± 0.13), all expressed in an mg GAE/g sample. ALT indicated the highest mol TE/g sample concentration for ABTS (25.34 ± 0.472) and DPPH (39.76 ± 0.054), showing a significant difference in the DPPH method with the AMT samples. The three Corixidae egg samples had between 15 to 18 different fatty acid profiles, and there were statistically significant differences (Student's t-test ≤ 0.05) between the means using MSD. The total fats of the three samples were between 12.5 and 15.5 g/100 g dry basis. In addition, Corixidae eggs are excellent protein sources. Thus, water boatmen's eggs can be considered to be a food rich in bioactive compounds.

Aproximación al uso y aprovechamiento de insectos comestibles en las comunidades indígenas del oriente amazónico colombiano / Approach to the use of edible insects by indigenous communities of the eastern Colombian amazon

Resumen En la Amazonía colombiana, los insectos constituyen un recurso natural abundante, el cual es aprovechado mediante el consumo de especies comestibles. Históricamente, los pueblos indígenas son entomofágicos y han incluido a insectos y otros artrópodos en sus dietas. En el presente estudio, se analiza el uso tradicional de insectos comestibles en las comunidades del oriente amazónico de Colombia. Durante el período de agosto 2020 a marzo 2021, se realizaron entrevistas abiertas y semi-estructuradas a habitantes del municipio de Mitú (Vaupés) y de 41 comunidades indígenas aledañas, las cuales indagaron sobre la percepción, aprovechamiento y comercialización de insectos comestibles. De acuerdo con su valor de uso, Rhynchophorus palmarum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Syntermes spinosus (Blattodea: Termitidae), Atta laevigata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Lusura chera (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) y Polybia liliacea (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), constituyen las especies de insectos comestibles más representativas de la región. Para cada especie se estableció su calendario ecológico y se documentaron sus técnicas y métodos de recolecta, sus formas tradicionales de preparación y consumo, y sus actividades de comercialización. Se resalta el potencial de las especies de insectos comestibles analizadas para el fortalecimiento de estrategias de uso sostenible direccionadas a mejorar la seguridad alimentaria de la población y el mantenimiento de los conocimientos tradicionales de las comunidades.

Abstract In the Colombian Amazon, insects are an abundant natural resource, and part of the use of this resource is the consumption of some edible species. Historically, indigenous peoples are entomophagic and have included insects and other arthropods in their diets. In this paper, the traditional use of edible insects in the communities of the eastern Amazon of Colombia is analyzed. During August 2020 to March 2021, opened and semi-structured interviews carried out with inhabitants of the municipality of Mitú (Vaupés) and 41 surrounding indigenous communities were applied, inquiring about the perception, use and commercialization of edible insects. According to its use value, Rhynchophorus palmarum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Syntermes spinosus (Blattodea: Termitidae), Atta laevigata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Lusura chera (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), and Polybia liliacea (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), are the most representative species of edible insects in the region. For each species, its ecological calendar was established, and its collecting techniques and methods, traditional forms of preparation and consumption, and marketing activities were documented. The potential of the edible insect species documented is highlighted to promote sustainable use strategies, with the aim of improving the food security of the population and maintaining the traditional knowledge of these communities.

Taxonomic Analysis of Some Edible Insects From the State of Michoacán, Mexico.

In the state of Michoacán, Mexico, 49 genera and 69 species of edible insects were registered, and they belong to the following orders: Orthoptera: (families) Pyrgomorphidae (2 species) and Acrididae (5); Hemiptera-Heteroptera: Coreidae (1), Corixidae (2), Pentatomidae (2), Membracidae (2), and Aethalionidae (3); Coleoptera: Cerambycidae (1), Cicendelidae (2), Curculionidae (2), Dytiscidae (1), Noteridae (1), Gyrinidae (1), Passalidae (1), Scarabaeidae (1), Tenebrionidae (2), Bostrichidae (1), Buprestidae (1), and Melolonthidae (1); Lepidoptera: Cossidae (1), Danaidae (1), Megathymidae (1), Pieridae (1), Bombycidae (1), Sessidae (1), Noctuidae (1), and Nymphalidae (1); Diptera: Stratiomydae (2); and Hymenoptera: Diprionidae (2), Apidae (10), Formicidae (4), and Vespidae (12). The order Coleoptera presents the highest number of families (12), but the order Hymenoptera has the highest number of genera (18) and species (28), 12 of which belong to the family Vespidae. Among the genera, 75.52% are monospecific, 14.28% are bispecific, 4.08% are trispecific, 4.08% are tetraspecific, and 2.04% are pentaspecific. Their distribution by locality is indicated, and these localities correspond to the municipalities of the state sampled so far; likewise, we report various forms in which they are prepared and the economic importance of, for example, the grasshoppers of the genus Sphenarium that are widely looked for, collected, accepted as part of the diet, consumed, and marketed.

Insectos: son realmente una alternativa para la alimentación de animales y humanos

RESUMEN En los últimos años se han propuesto a los insectos como el alimento del futuro, sin embargo, surge la siguiente pregunta: ¿realmente se podrían usar como una alternativa de alimentación en la actualidad? Así el objetivo de la presente revisión fue analizar si los distintos tipos de productos en base a insectos son una buena opción para la alimentación humana y animal. En el mundo hay más de 1.900 especies de insectos comestibles, sin embargo, los más utilizados en la producción de alimentos para humanos son grillos (Acheta domesticus), larvas de mosca soldado negra (Hermetia illucens) y gusanos de la harina (Tenebrio molitor). Para alimentación animal generalmente son los dos últimos mencionados; por tanto, esta revisión se centra en éstos. Para humanos existe una gran cantidad de alimentos que contienen insectos como: barras de cereal, pastas, bebidas, cervezas, hamburguesas, golosinas para niños, "snacks" y también insectos deshidratados. Los cuales son producidos en países de Europa, Australia, Sudáfrica y Estados Unidos y también se pueden adquirir por internet. Para animales hay harina de insecto, alimentos concentrados y larvas deshidratadas o vivas. Los estudios en animales se han centrado en la alimentación de peces, pero también en otras especies (perros, gatos, cerdos, aves, animales exóticos, etc.). En varios países de Europa, Australia, Sudáfrica, Estados Unidos e incluso en Chile existen industrias que procesan y comercializan harinas. Los insectos están constituidos principalmente por proteínas y grasa, son inocuos, y algunos presentan propiedades funcionales, como péptidos antimicrobianos, lo que los hace ser una alternativa viable para la alimentación de humanos y animales.

ABSTRACT In recent years insects have been proposed as the food of the future, however, the following question arises: could they really be used as a food alternative in these times? Thus, the aim of this review was to analyze whether different types of insect products are a good option for food and feed. Worldwide, there are more than 1.900 species of edible insects; those most used in the production of food for humans are crickets (Acheta domesticus), black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) and mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). For animal feed, soldier fly larvae and mealworms are the most studied, thus, this review focuses on these. For humans, there are a lot of foods that contain insects such as: cereal bars, pastas, drinks, beers, hamburgers, candies, snacks and also dehydrated insects. These foods are produced in Europe, Australia, South Africa and the United States and can be purchased online. For animals, there is insect meal, concentrated food and dehydrated or live larvae. Animal studies have focused on the feeding of fish, but also on other species (dogs, cats, pigs, birds, exotic animals, etc.). In several European countries, Australia, South Africa, United States and even in Chile there are industries that process and market insect flours. Insects are mainly composed of protein and fat in high concentrations, are harmless, and some have functional properties, such as antimicrobial peptides, which, in conclusion, make them a viable alternative for the feeding of humans and animals.

Commerce of Edible Insects in the State of Morelos, Mexico.

The present study deals with the taxonomical analysis of the edible insects commercialized in the state of Morelos, Mexico. We have recorded two species under the order Orthoptera and four species under Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Our work revealed that grasshoppers and small hemipterans known as 'jumiles' are the two main insects sold in the markets of the state of Morelos. We also discuss insects' prices and their economic importance for the livelihood improvement of the local people connected to the edible insect trade.

Influence of Arthropod and Fruit Abundance on the Dietary Composition of Highland Colombian Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha lugens).

The woolly monkey's (Lagothrix lagotricha) diet consists primarily of fruits, and for some populations fruit availability predicts its frequency in the diet. Woolly monkeys also eat new leaves, flowers, seeds and arthropods, but it is unclear whether arthropods are consumed in proportion to their environmental availability. We tested the hypothesis that arthropod consumption by woolly monkeys depends on availability. We studied a group of woolly monkeys for 10 months in 2013-2014, in Cueva de los Guácharos National Park, Colombia, in order to test the hypothesis that arthropod consumption by woolly monkeys depends on availability. We carried out surveys of plant phenology each month for 10 months to estimate fruit productivity, and every 2 months we also surveyed 3 canopy substrates (leaves, mosses and bromeliads) to quantify variation in arthropod biomass. During this time, we also quantified the diet of a woolly monkey group. The items most consumed were fruits (60%), followed by arthropods (24%), leaves (13%) and miscellaneous other items (3%). Arthropod biomass in the canopy did not vary considerably over the 10 months (0.014-0.037 g/g substrate) but was lower at the end of the second rainy season. A positive correlation was found between availability and entomophagy, but only when arthropods were relatively abundant. We did not find a relationship between arthropod and fruit feeding frequencies. Our results indicate that arthropods are prevalent in the diet of the woolly monkeys due to their abundance in Andean forest canopies.

Brazilian consumers' perception of edible insects / Percepção de consumidores brasileiros aos insetos comestíveis

ABSTRACT: It is estimated that by 2050 the world population will be 9 billion people; and therefore, the need for alternative sources of protein is inevitable, since conventional sources, such as beef, pork and poultry, will not be sufficient to meet the demand of population growth. Food that includes alternative sources of protein, such as insects, is a reality in countries of Latin America, Asia, Australia, Europe and Africa. This research presents the results of an exploratory study that analysed the food profile of 1,619 consumers in the five Brazilian regions (North, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast and South) as well as their perception, motivation and preferred form of edible insects. The data were analysed by cross-tabulation and expressed as frequencies. Our results show that women are more reluctant than men to consume insects. In general, there is a preference for consumption of insects in the form of flour. However, those with more familiarity with this type of consumption prefer the whole insect. Most Brazilian consumers have no opinion about the safety of consuming insects; however, consumers with higher levels of education and familiarity consider it safe.

RESUMO: Estima-se que em 2050 a população mundial contará com cerca de 9 bilhões de pessoas, e, portanto, a necessidade de fontes alternativas de proteína é inevitável, uma vez que as fontes convencionais, como carne de gado, suínos e aves, não serão suficientes para suprir a demanda do crescimento populacional. A alimentação que inclui fontes alternativas de proteína, como os insetos, é uma realidade em países da América Latina, Ásia, Austrália, Europa e África. Esta pesquisa apresenta os resultados de um estudo exploratório que analisou o perfil alimentar de 1.619 consumidores das cinco regiões brasileiras (Norte, Nordeste, Centro-Oeste, Sudeste e Sul) quanto sua percepção, motivação e forma preferencial aos insetos comestíveis. Os dados foram analisados através de frequências cruzadas e expressos em porcentagem. Nossos resultados mostram que mulheres apresentam maior aversão ao consumo de insetos do que homens. Em geral, há preferência em consumir os insetos na forma de farinha, e inteiro para aqueles com mais familiaridade ao consumo de insetos. Majoritariamente, os consumidores brasileiros não tem opinião sobre a segurança em consumir insetos, contudo, em maiores níveis de escolaridade e a familiaridade os consumidores posicionam-se quanto à sua segurança.

Brazilian consumers perception of edible insects / Percepção de consumidores brasileiros aos insetos comestíveis

It is estimated that by 2050 the world population will be 9 billion people; and therefore, the need for alternative sources of protein is inevitable, since conventional sources, such as beef, pork and poultry, will not be sufficient to meet the demand of population growth. Food that includes alternative sources of protein, such as insects, is a reality in countries of Latin America, Asia, Australia, Europe and Africa. This research presents the results of an exploratory study that analysed the food profile of 1,619 consumers in the five Brazilian regions (North, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast and South) as well as their perception, motivation and preferred form of edible insects. The data were analysed by cross-tabulation and expressed as frequencies. Our results show that women are more reluctant than men to consume insects. In general, there is a preference for consumption of insects in the form of flour. However, those with more familiarity with this type of consumption prefer the whole insect. Most Brazilian consumers have no opinion about the safety of consuming insects; however, consumers with higher levels of education and familiarity consider it safe.(AU)

Estima-se que em 2050 a população mundial contará com cerca de 9 bilhões de pessoas, e, portanto, a necessidade de fontes alternativas de proteína é inevitável, uma vez que as fontes convencionais, como carne de gado, suínos e aves, não serão suficientes para suprir a demanda do crescimento populacional. A alimentação que inclui fontes alternativas de proteína, como os insetos, é uma realidade em países da América Latina, Ásia, Austrália, Europa e África. Esta pesquisa apresenta os resultados de um estudo exploratório que analisou o perfil alimentar de 1.619 consumidores das cinco regiões brasileiras (Norte, Nordeste, Centro-Oeste, Sudeste e Sul) quanto sua percepção, motivação e forma preferencial aos insetos comestíveis. Os dados foram analisados através de frequências cruzadas e expressos em porcentagem. Nossos resultados mostram que mulheres apresentam maior aversão ao consumo de insetos do que homens. Em geral, há preferência em consumir os insetos na forma de farinha, e inteiro para aqueles com mais familiaridade ao consumo de insetos. Majoritariamente, os consumidores brasileiros não tem opinião sobre a segurança em consumir insetos, contudo, em maiores níveis de escolaridade e a familiaridade os consumidores posicionam-se quanto à sua segurança.(AU)

Beetles, ants, wasps, or flies? An ethnobiological study of edible insects among the Awajún Amerindians in Amazonas, Peru.

BACKGROUND: Insects are known to be able to provide valuable nutrients to indigenous populations across the Amazon. However, studies on traditional insect use in the Peruvian Amazon are scarce. This study documents edible insect diversity and characterizes their food and collection patterns in eight Awajún communities in the Peruvian Amazon. Additionally, we reviewed what has been known to date about the nutrient composition of the documented species. METHODS: The survey was conducted among the Awajún populations living in the Huampami, Paisa, Achu, and Tseasim communities in the Cenepa district and the Shijap, San Mateo, Kusu, and Listra communities in the Imaza district. Data collection was conducted through a freelisting exercise complemented by a semi-structured inquiry form in the Awajún language. In total, 104 informants (72 men and 32 women) aged between 16 to 73 years were interviewed. RESULTS: The Awajún people use at least 12 insect species, with Rhynchophorus palmarum, Atta cephalotes, and Rhinostomus barbirostris being the most important ones. Beetles of the family Curculionidae represent the culturally most salient taxon. In the more accessible and developed Imaza district, the Awajún tend to eat almost exclusively R. palmarum, while in the more isolated and preserved Cenepa district, the community's preferences are linked with more species. Although men are the main insect collectors, women cited more edible insects on average. The insects are eaten mainly roasted or raw. Further use patterns and differences between the districts are discussed. CONCLUSION: Traditional knowledge related to edible insects and the ecosystems they occur in is widespread among the Awajún populations, and insects still represent an important part of the indigenous food system. This ethnobiological survey discovered five species that are newly recorded as edible insects. Chemical composition of insects deemed edible by the Awajún ought to be analyzed in the future and awareness about their nutritional importance should be raised to harness the potential of this underutilized yet nutrient-rich traditional food.

Macronutrient contributions of insects to the diets of hunter-gatherers: a geometric analysis.

We present a geometric model for examining the macronutrient contributions of insects in the diets of pre-agricultural humans, and relate the findings to some contemporary societies that regularly eat insects. The model integrates published data on the macronutrient composition of insects and other foods in the diets of humans, recommended human macronutrient intakes, and estimated macronutrient intakes to examine the assumption that insects provided to pre-agricultural humans an invertebrate equivalent of vertebrate-derived meats, serving primarily as a source of protein. Our analysis suggests that insects vary more widely in their macronutrient content than is likely to be the case for most wild vertebrate meats, spanning a broad range of protein, fat and carbohydrate concentrations. Potentially, therefore, in terms of their proportional macronutrient composition, insects could serve as equivalents not only of wild meat, but of a range of other foods including some shellfish, nuts, pulses, vegetables and even fruits. Furthermore, humans might systematically manipulate the composition of edible insects to meet specific needs through pre-ingestive processing, such as cooking and selective removal of body parts. We present data suggesting that in modern societies for which protein is the more limiting macronutrient, pre-ingestive processing of edible insects might serve to concentrate protein. It is likely, however, that the dietary significance of insects was different for Paleolithic hunter-gatherers who were more limited in non-protein energy. Our conclusions are constrained by available data, but highlight the need for further studies, and suggest that our model provides an integrative framework for conceiving these studies.