Eating disorders among physically disabled national athletes in Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION: Eating disorders are becoming a cause of concern amongst athletes in recent times. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of eating disorders amongst physically disabled athletes in Malaysia. Athletes were sampled and screened for eating disorders utilising the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire 6.0 (EDE-Q-for females) and the Eating Disorder Assessment in Males (EDAM-for males). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Athletes were approached individually, and they responded via an online questionnaire. A total of 271 athletes responded (sample needed 269) from the total of 700 athletes (38.7%). RESULTS: From the total, 14.4% (n = 39, 95% CI = 10.56-19.28) of the athletes had eating disorders (14.4% of the male athletes and 14.5% of female athletes). The final model of a binary logistic regression was conducted and found that the higher the body weight (AOR: 1.02, 95% CI: 1.00-1.04, p = 0.03), the higher the income (AOR: 0.992, 95% CI: 0.990- 0.994, p = 0.02), the more athlete suffered from coaches intimidating behaviours(AOR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.03-1.33, p = 0.02), a perception of having stress (AOR: 7.61, 95% CI: 1.69-34.39, p = 0.01) and having stress (AOR: 3.70, 95% CI: 1.02-9.68, p = 0.04) were common factors seen in athletes with eating disorders. CONCLUSION: About two in every 10 disabled athletes suffered from eating disorders.

Nutritional knowledge, attitudes and behaviours in rugby league; influences of age, body composition and ancestry.

INTRODUCTION: Rugby league is a physically demanding sport that necessitates considerable nutritional intake, focusing on quality and type, in order to optimize training and competition demands. However, rugby league athletes are reported to have inadequate nutrition intake to match these demands. Some factors that may determine an athlete's nutrition intake have been reported in other sports, including (but not limited to, knowledge, time, cooking skills, food costs, income, belief in the importance of nutrition, body composition goals, and family/cultural support). However, these potential factors are relatively unexplored in rugby league, where a range of personal (age, body composition) or social (ancestry) influences could affect nutritional intake. Further exploration of these factors is warranted to understand the knowledge, attitudes and behavior underlying rugby league athletes' nutritional intake that can provide practitioners with a more detailed understanding of how to approach nutrition behaviors and attitudes in rugby league athletes. OBJECTIVES: The primary aim was to describe the nutrition behaviors and knowledge of rugby league athletes. A secondary aim was to compare nutrition knowledge and behavior based on age, body composition and self-identified ancestry. METHODS: Fifty professional rugby league athletes anonymously completed a seventy-six-question online survey. The survey consisted of three sections : 1) sports nutrition knowledge, 2) attitudes toward nutrition on performance , and 3) nutrition behaviors. All participants completed the online survey without assistance using their own personal device, with data entered via REDCap during pre-season. Nutrition knowledge was compared based on age (years), body composition (body fat percentage (%)) and ancestral groups (Pasifika, Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander (ATSI) and Anglo- European).Pearson correlation was used for the relationship between nutrition knowledge, age and body composition. An Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine nutrition knowledge differences between ancestral groups with age and body composition as covariates. Attitudes and behaviors were compared based on age groups (<20, 20-24 and >25 y), ancestry and body composition. Attitudes and behaviors were analyzed by Pearson correlation for body composition, one-way ANOVA for age groups and ANCOVA for ancestry with covariates age and body composition. RESULTS: Overall athletes' nutrition knowledge score was reported as 40 ± 12% (overall rating "poor"). Nutritional behaviors were significant for body composition, as those with lower body fat percentage had higher intakes of vegetables and dairy products (p = 0.046, p = 0.009), and ate more in the afternoon (lunch p = 0.048, afternoon snack p = 0.036). For ancestry, after adjustment for both age and body composition, Pasifika athletes were more inclined to miss breakfast and lunch compared to their Anglo-European (p = 0.037, p = 0.012) and ATSI (p = 0.022, p = 0.006) counterparts and ate more fruit than Anglo-Europeans (p = 0.006, p = 0.016). After adjustment for body composition, ATSI athletes also viewed the impact of nutrition on mental health and well-being significantly lower than Pasifika (p = 0.044). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest differences exist within rugby league athletes based on ancestral backgrounds and body composition for nutrition attitudes, behaviors and knowledge. Such outcomes could be used when designing nutrition education interventions, with consideration given to these factors to optimize long-term positive behavior change.

Risk Factors for Suicide Among Professional Athletes.

BACKGROUND: Suicide is a major public health concern that affects all demographics. Risk factors for suicide in professional athletes are poorly understood compared with the general population. The goal of this study was (1) to explore the current literature on risk factors for suicide in the population of professional athletes and (2) to formulate a proposed suicide risk identification tool as the first step in the production of a validated screening method specific to this population. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search for relevant publications was carried out through 7 databases. RESULTS: There is some evidence to suggest that retirement, anabolic androgenic steroid use, sexual abuse victimization, health problems, financial issues, relationship issues, having immigrant parents, having a financially disadvantaged childhood, using self-blame or behavioral disengagement as a coping strategy, changes in appetite or weight, sleep problems, reduced competitiveness, and thinking about a career after retirement are potential risk factors for suicide in this population. There is limited evidence to suggest that having a career in elite or professional sports, participation in contact sports, and participating in specific sports that are not associated with a higher suspected prevalence of performance-enhancing drug use are potential risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified potential risk factors for suicide among elite and professional athletes. These findings were used to help formulate a proposed suicide risk identification tool. Future research is recommended to explore and clarify specific risk factors for suicide in this population and to test the validity of the proposed tool.

Sport mental health continuum in young Brazilian athletes: adaptation and psychometric properties.

Instruments used to assess the mental well-being of young athletes in Brazil are scarce. Therefore, the present study aimed to translate, cross-culturally adapt for young athletes, and gather evidence of validity for the Sport Mental Health-Short Form (S-MHC) for use in Brazilian Portuguese. The research was conducted in five stages: translation, synthesis, back-translation, expert review, and validation of the psychometric properties. For validation, 246 young athletes of both genders (88 females, 35.8%), aged between 12 and 18 years (14.5 ± 1.9 years), were recruited. Psychometric methods were employed to confirm and validate the translated and adapted versions of the S-MHC for young athletes, including internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega, composite reliability, Item Characteristic Curve (ICC) using Item Response Theory (IRT), and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Two structures were tested, with Model 1 loading the 14 items of the translated version of the S-MHC into a single latent factor and Model 2 loading the items into three factors related to emotional, social, and psychological sport well-being. Both models showed good validity, consistency, and reliability measures and can be used to investigate the sport well-being of young athletes. It was concluded that the translated version of the S-MHC in Brazilian Portuguese can be used to assess the sport well-being of young athletes in Brazil. Model 2 structure is recommended to observe the different nuances of emotional, social, and psychological well-being.

Impact of mindfulness on football coaches: A mixed design.

Mindfulness is an increasingly popular practice among elite athletes to improve performance and well-being, but its application for coaches is still very limited. Therefore, a new program (M×E; Mindfulness para Entrenadores) was designed and implemented online for 6 weeks for coaches, support staff, and technical directors. Participants were 58 (57 men), aged between 23 and 58 (M = 31.8). The between-subject analysis (RM ANOVA 2×2) included experimental (n = 26) and wait-list control group (n = 21). A total of 29 completed the within-subject analysis (RM ANOVA) completing follow-up measurements until six months. The analysis was complemented with 21 individual semi-structured interviews. The experimental group showed significant improvements in mindfulness trait (p < .001), interpersonal mindfulness (p = .010), and a significant improvement in emotional regulation (p = .010) in comparison to the wait-list control group. The experimental group's positive trend in all variables' levels was maintained until six months after the program. The qualitative analysis showed a positive impact on professional, personal, and social areas with improvements related to performance and well-being. Several participants considered the program as "fundamental" for their professional role. This study provides information on best practices in implementing mindfulness-based programs, highlighting their practical orientation, the training plan, and the safe space. These results offer initial validation of the potential of the M×E and invite sports organizations to incorporate mindfulness-based programs specially designed for coaches, support staff and technical directors.

Improvements in executive functions by domain-specific cognitive training in youth elite soccer players.

This study examined the impact of sport-specific cognitive training (CT) on executive functions (EFs) in youth soccer players. Thirty-one athletes (13-15 years) participated, 13 in the intervention group (IG) and 18 in the control group (CG). The IG underwent an 8-week soccer-focused CT program, while the CG maintained regular training. The assessments included working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results revealed no significant improvements in EFs in the IG compared to those in the CG. Both groups showed enhanced cognitive flexibility, possibly due to general cognitive development or learning effects. The study suggested that an 8-week sport-specific CT may not enhance EFs in young soccer players, potentially due to a ceiling effect in highly skilled athletes. These findings should be considered when designing cognitive training programs for athletes, and future research could explore the optimal duration of such programs.

Psychological traits of extreme sport participants: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Extreme sports have increased in popularity, particularly over the past two decades. Theories explaining participation in extreme sports tend to focus on risk. Consequently, extreme sports participants are often characterized by an accentuated desire for risk and abnormal personal traits, but the positive aspects of extreme sports are often neglected in the literature. This scoping review summarizes extreme sport motives, emotions and personal characteristics. METHODS: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist, three databases were searched (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, SportDiscus and, PsycInfo) on 20th April 2023. Studies were included if they were originally articles written in English and examined psychology traits in extreme sport participants. RESULTS: In total, 39 manuscripts met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in the present review. There is no unique profile for individuals involved in extreme sports. Risk and fear are considered natural characteristic of participation, and many positive aspects are associated with involvement in extreme sports (e.g., organization, planning, confidence). The quality of experience is often reported to justify extreme sport participation. CONCLUSION: Changes in emotions and motives characterized the reversal theory, which in combination with the flow approach, could explain the participation in extreme activities. A dynamic ecological approach considering the interaction between individuals and the environment should be adopted to understand individual motives, behaviour and emotions.

The Impact of Social Media and Socio-Cultural Attitudes toward Body Image on the Risk of Orthorexia among Female Football Players of Different Nationalities.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Orthorexia Nervosa (ON) is an emerging behavioral pattern characterized by an obsessive focus on healthy eating. Despite its prevalence, ON lacks formal diagnostic criteria in major classification systems like the DSM-5 and the ICD-10. This study aims to investigate the impact of socio-cultural attitudes towards body image and the role of social media on the risk of ON among female football players from Poland, Turkey, and India. This study hypothesizes that socio-cultural pressures and media usage significantly influence the risk of developing ON, particularly in cultures more exposed to Western beauty ideals. METHODS: The study was conducted from May to August 2024, employing the Computer-Assisted Web Interview method. A total of 142 female football players aged 16-36 from Poland, Turkey, and India participated. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire that included demographic information and health metrics, the Socio-Cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire, and the Duesseldorf Orthorexia Scale. Statistical analyses included an ANOVA, the Kruskal-Wallis test, the chi-square test, and Pearson's correlation coefficient. RESULTS: The study found that nearly half of the participants were at risk of or presented with ON, with the highest prevalence being among Indian athletes. Statistically significant relationships were observed between the risk of ON and factors such as age, dietary exclusions, social media usage, and sources of nutritional information. However, no significant correlation was found between socio-cultural attitudes and the risk of ON, suggesting that other factors may play a more critical role. CONCLUSIONS: While socio-cultural pressures and media use are contributing factors to the risk of ON, psychological factors and individual behaviors appear to be equally, if not more, significant. This study highlights the importance of targeted educational programs and psychological support for young athletes, with a focus on promoting healthy dietary practices and positive body image perceptions across varying cultural contexts. Additionally, the results suggest the need for further research into the specific psychological and behavioral mechanisms underlying ON.

The role of transformational leadership in the associations between coach-athlete relationship and team resilience: A study on elite football players.

This study explores the relationship between the quality of coach-athlete relationships, transformational leadership style, and team resilience in elite football players. The coach-athlete relationship is an essential factor affecting many performance-related properties of athletes, such as mental health, psychological needs, motivation, and resilience. The study examines how the quality of coach-athlete relationships explains the team resilience feature through transformational leadership. The research group includes 210 elite players from the Super League, First League, Second League, and Third Leagues of the Turkish Football Federation (TFF) in the 2020-2021 football season. The study used descriptive and relational models to explore the current state of the dependent and independent variables and examine their relationships. The findings revealed insights into the mediating role of the coach's transformational leadership qualities, highlighting how the quality of coach-athlete relationships impacts team resilience.

Orienteering Is More than Just Running! Acute Effect of Competitive Pressure on Autonomic Cardiac Activity among Elite Orienteering Athletes.

Background and Objectives: Orienteering is a sport characterized by high physical exertion and intense mental demands, which increase susceptibility to errors. Understanding the impact of such errors on psychophysiological responses, particularly on heart rate variability (HRV), is essential. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between psychophysiological indicators and checkpoint errors made by elite orienteers during official competition. Materials and Methods: Fifty-three orienteers participated in this study, and their performance was continuously monitored and recorded by using a global positioning system (GPS) and HRV data. Errors made during the orienteering events were identified and analyzed. HRV data were examined in three temporal segments: before, during, and after the identified and standardized errors. Results: The analyses indicated that errors significantly impacted HRV indices across multiple domains: the time domain, frequency domain, and nonlinear domain. Additionally, a significant effect of sex on the normalized the root mean square of successive differences (r-MSSD) before and after the error was observed. Conclusions: The findings of this study underscore the significant impact of errors made by orienteers on cardiovascular responses, as evidenced by measurable alterations in HRV metrics. Cardiovascular activity, represented by the HRV, can provide useful information for coaches and sport psychologists to adopt effective training programs for athletes.

Assessing the Reliability of the Sexual Violence Questionnaire in Sport among Spanish-Speaking Athletes.

The prevalence of sexual harassment and abuse in school sport, specifically by coaches against their athletes, remains a concerning and pervasive issue. In an attempt to better understand and prevent specific coach-behaviours associated with such sexual misconduct, researchers have developed the Sexual Violence Questionnaire in Sport. While the reliability of this measurement tool has been tested in Anglo-Saxon cultural contexts, it is not known whether the questionnaire is applicable to other cultural contexts. This study aimed to analyse the internal consistency and reliability of the questionnaire on sexual harassment in sport, originally designed and developed in English. A sample of 146 (52 female, 94 male) undergraduate students from a university in the Basque Country participated in this cross-sectional study. The questionnaire was administered twice over a two-week period to assess test-retest reliability. The internal consistency of the Sexual Violence Questionnaire in Sport was high, with Cronbach's alpha values of 0.891 for perceptions and 0.813 for experiences across all participants. Gender-specific analysis showed similar reliability, with females having slightly lower alpha values for perceptions. Although significant differences were observed between the test and the retest on eight perception items and one experience item, Cohen's kappa analysis indicated agreement on all items; however, some of them were low (e.g., 0.13). In conclusion, the study highlights the questionnaire's overall reliability and suggests its effectiveness as a tool for measuring sexual violence in sport within the Spanish context. Nonetheless, the findings of this study underscore the need for further research to enhance the instrument's stability and to better understand gender differences in perceptions and experiences of sexual violence in sport contexts.

Athletic Identity Associations in Young Sports Medicine Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have assessed athletic identity levels in young patients. This study examined athletic identity in adolescents and explored associations between athletic identity, patterns of sport participation, and coping skills. METHODS: Patients aged 12 to 18 years who received sports medicine care completed a one-time, voluntary, anonymous survey. Surveys included demographics, sport participation information, Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), and Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI). Statistical analysis included Fisher exact test, Student t test, Wilcoxon rank sum test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Pearson correlation. RESULTS: Three hundred thirty-four patients (mean ± SD age 15.0 ± 1.8 years, 64.7% girls) completed questionnaires. The mean AIMS and ACSI scores were 45.2 ± 11.5 and 50.2 ± 10.9, respectively. No notable differences were observed in AIMS scores between age groups or sexes. An increase in mean AIMS scores (higher athletic identity) was seen with greater weekly hours of sport participation (P < 0.001) and months per year of primary sport participation (P < 0.001). Multisport per season athletes had higher AIMS scores than single-sport athletes (48.2 ± 10.1 vs. 43.0 ± 11.9, P < 0.001). Team sport athletes reported higher athletic identities than individual sport athletes (47.0 ± 10.7, 41.4 ± 11.4, P < 0.001). Athletic Identity Measurement Scale scores positively correlated with ACSI scores (r = 0.31, P < 0.0001). Athletes with the highest athletic identity had markedly higher scores on ACSI subscales of Coachability, Concentration, Confidence and Achievement Motivation, Goal Setting and Mental Preparation, and Peaking Under Pressure than athletes with the least athletic identity. However, those with the highest athletic identities reported significantly lower scores on the ACSI Freedom From Worry subscale (P < 0.001). DISCUSSION: Athletic identity did not differ among adolescents by age or sex. Athletic identity was higher in team sport athletes and those with increased sport participation volumes. While high athletic identity was associated with higher scores on favorable coping skill dimensions, these athletes may also worry more, potentially placing them at greater psychological risk after injury.

Framing racial disparities within sports related concussion (SRC): an ecological framework for understanding biases and disparities in concussion care for black athletes.

Privilege and marginalization associated with racial background have been posited as contributors to why Black athletes face disparities within their care, treatment, and recovery from sport-related concussion (SRC). However, empirical findings have limited exploration on how disparate outcomes have emerged, and the interaction with systems of biases, power and disenfranchisement. To understand concussion care disparities, a qualitative content analysis was conducted in three phases: [I] identifying salient literature on racial differences for Black athletes with SRC (N = 29), [II] qualitative analysis of literature to determine salient topics, themes and patterns within the literature, and [III] constructing a novel ecological-systems framework that encapsulates the 'why' and 'how' related to psychosocial and sociocultural experiences of power, access, and biases for Black athletes. The content analysis yielded two patterns, where concussion care decisions are influenced by (1) biased, unconscious beliefs that posit Black athletes as uniquely invincible to injury and pain, and (2) inadequate access to concussion knowledge and resources, which both moderate SRC injury risk, diagnosis, recovery and outcomes. Ultimately, our novel framework provides a clear thread on how historical, macro-level policy and perceptions can impact micro-level clinical care and decision-making for Black athletes with SRC.

Associations between motivational factors and burnout syndrome among elite skiers.

The present research investigated the association between a series of motivational factors and burnout syndrome among elite skiers at the contextual level within the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (HMIEM). There are 352 subjects (258 males, 94 females, aged 18 to 25 years) across five skiing events from three sport universities in this study. Four psychological scales related to motivational factors and burnout syndrome were completed by subjects. Overall, the result showed that a task-involving climate had a positive relationship with basic psychological needs, eliciting a positive pathway to autonomous motivation, and thus negatively affecting burnout syndromes. On the other hand, an ego-involving climate had a negative relationship with basic psychological needs, eliciting a negative pathway to amotivation, and then positively affecting burnout syndromes. The results underscore the intricate associations between a variety of motivational factors and athletes' burnout syndrome, supporting the need to incorporate burnout syndrome elements into the outcomes of HMIEM sequence.

Evaluation and test of the reliability and validity of the Chinese defeat scale in the elite athletes of Chinese universities.

To test the reliability and validity of the "Defeat Scale" and explore whether the scale is suitable for use in surveys of college athletes. A total of 226 athletes from five universities in China were selected for evaluation using the defeat scale. Factor analysis and correlation analysis were used to explore the reliability and validity of the defeat scale. Exploratory factor analysis showed that two factors could be extracted from this scale, namely a sense of decadence and a sense of low achievement. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the model fit of the two factors was excellent (X2/DF = 2.809, RMSEA = 0.092, SRMR = 0.054, NFI = 0.891, IFI = 0.927, CFI = 0.926, GFI = 0.919, TLI = 0.910) . The convergent validity AVE values are 0.579 and 0.505 respectively, AVE > 0.5, and the combined reliability is 0.946 and 0.746 respectively. Both > 0.7 indicate good convergence effect. The arithmetic square roots of AVE, 0.760 and 0.710, are both higher than the absolute value of the correlation coefficient between the two dimensions, 0.30, indicating good discriminant validity; and the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of defeat is 0.931, and the Spearman-Brown coefficient is 0.888. The defeat scale has good reliability and validity among college athletes.

A systematic review of pre-injury anxiety disorder and post-concussion outcomes in youth and young adult athletes.

Pre-injury anxiety disorder may be a risk factor for poor outcomes following sportsrelated concussion. A systematic review was performed to characterize the relationship between pre-injury anxiety disorder and post-concussion symptom presentation and recovery time after sports-related concussions among children, adolescents, and young adults. A PRISMA-compliant literature search was conducted in Ovid MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, and Scopus for articles published up to 25 January 2024. The initial query yielded 1358 unique articles. Articles that analyzed the relationship between pre-injury anxiety disorder and post-concussion symptoms and recovery time were included. A final cohort of 11 articles was extracted, comprising a total of 8390 study participants, of whom 921 had a history of pre-injury anxiety disorder. Pre-injury anxiety disorder was associated with prolonged time to return to sports activity and an increased incidence of physical, emotional, cognitive, and sleep-related symptoms. While the results of this review suggest an association between pre-injury anxiety disorder and post-concussion symptoms and recovery time, future studies should be more stringent regarding standardized anxiety disorder definitions, longitudinal assessment of post-concussion symptoms, anxiety disorder subtypes, and anxiety treatment history.

Repetitive head-injury exposure and later-in-life cognitive and emotional outcomes among former collegiate football players: a CLEAATS investigation.

This study measured the relationship between head-injury exposure and later-in-life cognitive and emotional symptoms in aging collegiate football players who participated in the College Level Aging Athlete Study. Linear regressions examined the relationship between various head-injury exposure variables (head-injury exposure estimate [HIEE], number of diagnosed concussions, and symptomatic hits to the head) and subjective cognitive function, objective cognitive function, and emotional/mood symptoms. Additional regressions evaluated the impact of emotional symptoms on subjective cognitive decline and objective cognitive function. Participants (n = 216) were 50-87 years old (M = 63.4 [8.5]), 91% White, and well-educated (bachelor's/graduate degree = 92%). HIEE did not predict scores on cognitive or emotional/mood symptom measures (p's > .169). Diagnosed concussions had a small effect on depression symptoms (p = .002, b = 0.501, R2 = .052) and subjective cognitive symptoms (p = .002, b = 0.383, R2 = .051). An emotional symptom index had a stronger relationship (p < .001, b = 0.693, R2 = .362) with subjective cognitive functioning but no significant relationship with objective cognitive function (p = .052, b = -0.211, R2 = .020). Controlling for emotional symptoms, the relationship between concussions and subjective cognitive symptoms was attenuated (p = .078, R2 = .011). Findings suggested that head-injury exposure was not significantly related to cognitive or emotional/mood outcomes in former collegiate football players and highlighted the importance of current emotional/mood symptoms on subjective cognitive function.

Mental health in individual versus team sports.

Across all sports, there has been increasing realization that mental health symptoms and disorders in athletes are common. More specifically, there has been increasing study of differences in mental health between individual and team sport athletes. However, this topic is still under-developed, and no comprehensive review on the topic has been undertaken. This manuscript aims to provide a narrative review of mental health symptoms and disorders, spanning depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and substance use and other addictive disorders, in individual versus team sports. Findings revealed that individual sports may be associated with relatively more negative mental health than team sports. This includes depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and concepts related to exercise addiction. Substance misuse and use disorders may be an exception to this pattern, with team sport athletes exhibiting higher rates of problematic alcohol use, use of certain forms of nicotine, and possibly use of illicit substances such as marijuana. Reasons for the greater overall mental health risk in individual versus team sports may include relatively more negative self-attribution after failure and less social cohesion/support. Steps can be taken to improve the sporting environment for all athletes-across individual and team sports-in order to optimize mental health outcomes.

Elite athletes' subjective wellbeing trajectories throughout the retirement transition: an analysis using Ruthven's (2022) transition model.

AIMS: Utilizing Ruthven's (2022) transition model, we explored how identity, voluntariness, and reason for retirement are related to subjective wellbeing throughout an athlete's retirement. METHODS: 541 participants completed an anonymous, online survey and estimated their wellbeing starting before retirement and up to the present. A set of linear mixed models regressed the seven wellbeing outcomes on the three measures, with education, gender, and time since retirement as covariates. RESULTS: Identity: Athletic Identity wellbeing was significantly and consistently lower than Diversified Identity. Voluntariness: Surprise retirement was significantly more difficult and contributed to a sharper decline on the day of transition. Reason for retirement: Pursue Something Else and Right Time experienced no significant wellbeing changes, while Injury had a significant decline on their transition day. Motivation Loss experienced significantly lower wellbeing prior to retirement, and a significant, gradual rise on the day of and throughout their transition. CONCLUSIONS: There are wellbeing benefits for a diverse identity, voluntary retirement, and retiring due to pursuing something else, or feeling ready to retire. At risk groups include retiring due to injury, low motivation, and loss of eligibility/graduation. Findings support the benefit of utilizing a theoretical model to explain elite athlete outcomes.