¿Por qué necesitamos una Psicología Crítica en el Deporte? / Why do we need Critical Psychology on Sport?

La psicología del deporte posee una tradición marcada por la perspectiva cognitiva conductual de la disciplina que ha sido considerada como la versión hegemónica en el campo. Sin embargo, en los últimos años se han hecho visibles varias propuestas que han logrado posicionarse como versiones válidas para trabajar desde la psicología en el amplio campo deportivo. Estas versiones, a su vez, han generado nuevos temas de investigación para resolver diferentes problemas que habían sido invisibilizados por la Psicología Tradicional del Deporte. Con el objetivo de difundir entre las redes latinoamericanas, caribeñas e iberoamericanas la existencia de diferentes perspectivas en el campo de la psicología del deporte, este número especial incluye diez artículos, 5 de ellos en español, 3 en portugués y 2 en inglés, que colaboran con el avance y la amplitud teórica en el campo

Sports psychology has a tradition marked by the behavioral cognitive perspective of the disci-pline, which has been considered the hegemonic version on the field. Nevertheless, in recent years several proposals have become visible and have managed as valid versions to work from psychology in the broad field of sports. These versions have generated new research topics to solve different problems that had been invisible in Traditional Sports Psychology. With the aim of communicate the existence of different perspectives in the field of Psychology of Sport among Latin American, Caribbean and Ibero-American networks, this special issue includes ten articles, 5 of them in Spanish, 3 in Portuguese and 2 in English, which collaborate with ad-vancement and theoretical amplitude in the field

Reporte de las diferencias confiables en el perfil del ACE-III / A report of reliable differences in the profile of the ACE-III

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El enfoque del procesamiento de la información emocional en el abordaje del trastorno psicológico: la terapia metacognitiva / The emotional information processing approach in the treatment of psychological disorders: the metacognitive therapy

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Do potential past and future events activate the Left- Right Mental Timeline? / ¿Hay activación de la línea mental del tiempo de izquierda a derecha para eventos potenciales?

Current evidence provides support for the idea that time is mentally represented by spatial means, i.e., a left-right mental timeline. However, available studies have tested only factual events, i.e., those which have occurred in the past or can be predicted to occur in the future. In the present study we tested whether past and future potential events are also represented along the left-right mental timeline. In Experiment 1 participants categorized the temporal reference (past or future) of either real or potential events and responded by means of a lateralized (left or right) keypress. Factual events showed a space-time congruency effect that replicated prior findings: Participants were faster to categorize past events with the left hand and future events with the right hand than when using the opposite mapping. Crucially, this also ocurred for potential events. Experiment 2 replicated this finding using blocks of trials comprising only potential events. In order to assess the degree of automaticity of the activation of the mental timeline in these two kinds of events, Experiment 3 asked participants to judge whether the expressions referred to factual or potential events. In this case, there was no space-time congruency effect, showing that the lateralized timeline is active only when relevant to the task. Moreover, participants were faster to categorize potential events with the left hand and real events with the right hand than when using the opposite mapping, suggesting for the first time a link between the mental representations of lateral space and potentiality (AU)

La evidencia experimental disponible actualmente sustenta la afirmación de que el tiempo se representa mediante una línea mental del tiempo que va de izquierda a derecha. Sin embargo, todos los estudios hasta el momento examinan eventos factuales, es decir, aquéllos que efectivamente han ocurrido en el pasado o que con certeza sucederán en el futuro. En el presente estudio examinamos si los eventos potenciales pasados y futuros también se representan a lo largo de una línea mental lateral. En el Experimento 1 los participantes categorizaron la referencia temporal (pasado o futuro) tanto de eventos factuales como potenciales presionando una tecla de respuesta lateralizada (izquierda o derecha). Los eventos factuales mostraron un efecto de congruencia espaciotiempo que replica los hallazgos previos: los participantes fueron más rápidos para categorizar eventos pasados con la mano izquierda y eventos futuros con la mano derecha, en comparación con la asignación motora opuesta. Crucialmente, lo mismo ocurrió para los eventos potenciales. El Experimento 2 replicó estos hallazgos usando bloques compuestos sólo por ensayos con eventos potenciales. Con el objetivo de evaluar la automaticidad de la línea mental del tiempo, el Experimento 3 solicitó a los participantes juzgar si las mismas expresiones se referían a eventos factuales o potenciales. En este caso, no se encontró el efecto de congruencia espaciotiempo, mostrando que la línea mental del tiempo se activa sólo cuando es relevante a la resolución de la tarea. Además, los participantes fueron más rápidos para categorizar los eventos potenciales con la mano izquierda y los eventos fácticos con la mano derecha, en comparación con la asignación motora opuesta. Este resultado sugiere, por primera vez, una relación entre las representaciones mentales del espacio lateralizado y la potencialidad (AU)

The effect of cognitive load and outcome congruency on the learned predictiveness effect in human predictive learning / El efecto de la carga cognitiva y la congruencia de las consecuencias sobre el efecto de la predictibilidad aprendida en el aprendizaje predictivo humano

The learned predictiveness effect or LPE is the finding that when people learn that certain cues are reliable predictors of an outcome in an initial stage of training (phase 1), they exhibit a learning bias in favor of these cues in a subsequent training involving new outcomes (phase 2) despite all cues being equally reliable in phase 2. In Experiment 1, we replicate the basic effect and found that the addition of a secondary memory task during phase 2 had no reliable influence on the LPE. In Experiment 2, we demonstrated that the same secondary task can either facilitate or disrupt the LPE, depending on whether the outcomes of phase 1 were affectively congruent or incongruent with the outcomes of phase 2. These findings are discussed in relationship to associative and inferential accounts of LPE (AU)

El efecto de la predictibilidad aprendida o LPE, es el hallazgo de que cuando las personas aprenden que algunos estímulos son predictores fiables de una consecuencia en una primera etapa del entrenamiento (fase 1), muestran un sesgo de aprendizaje a favor de éstos estímulos en un entrenamiento posterior que implica nuevas consecuencias (fase 2), a pesar de que todos los estímulos son igualmente fiables en la fase 2. En el Experimento 1, replicamos el efecto básico y demostramos que la ejecución de una tarea de memoria secundaria durante la fase 2 no tuvo una influencia significativa sobre la LPE. En el Experimento 2, demostramos que la misma tarea secundaria puede facilitar o interrumpir la LPE, dependiendo de si las consecuencias de la fase 1 fueron congruentes o incongruentes afectivamente con las consecuencias de la fase 2. Estos hallazgos son discutidos en relación a las explicaciones asociativa e inferencial de la LPE (AU)

Relaciones entre síntomas psicóticos subclínicos y rendimiento cognitivo en la población general / Relationship between subclinical psychotic symptoms and cognitive performance in the general population

Introducción. En la población general, los síntomas psicóticos subclínicos se han asociado con mayores dificultades funcionales en la vida real, pero desconocemos si estos síntomas están asociados a un peor rendimiento cognitivo. El estudio de la relación entre las alteraciones cognitivas y estos síntomas puede, además, ayudarnos a comprender mejor las dificultades que presentan los pacientes con psicosis, en los que estas alteraciones cognitivas están presentes. Métodos. Realizamos evaluaciones clínicas y cognitivas en 203 sujetos de la población general mediante los instrumentos Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences, Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale y Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Se evaluó la relación de los síntomas psicóticos subclínicos positivos y negativos con la edad y el rendimiento cognitivo. Además, se evaluó la influencia de los síntomas depresivos subclínicos sobre la posible relación entre síntomas positivos y negativos subclínicos y las alteraciones cognitivas. Resultados. Encontramos una relación inversa del rendimiento en la prueba de velocidad motora tanto con la frecuencia de síntomas positivos como con el distrés y la frecuencia de los síntomas negativos. También encontramos una relación directa entre el distrés de los síntomas positivos y el rendimiento en función ejecutiva. La puntuación en síntomas depresivos subclínicos se asoció con ambas escalas subclínicas, positiva y negativa. Conclusiones. Los síntomas psicóticos subclínicos están relacionados con déficits cognitivos en la población general, similares a los observados en poblaciones clínicas (AU)

Introduction. Subclinical psychotic symptoms are associated to negative life outcomes in the general population, but their relationship with cognitive performance is still not well understood. Assessing the relationship between performance in cognitive domains and subclinical psychotic symptoms in the general population may also help understand the handicap attributed to clinical psychosis, in which these alterations are present. Methods. Subclinical and cognitive assessments were obtained in 203 participants from the general population by means of the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences, the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia, the Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The positive and negative subclinical symptoms and their relationship with age and cognition were examined, followed by assessing the influence of subclinical depression scores on the possible relationships between those subclinical psychotic symptoms and cognitive deficits. Results. Inverse relationships were found between frequency in the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences positive dimension and motor speed, and frequency and distress in the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences negative dimension and motor speed. A direct relationship was also found between distress scores of the positive dimension and executive functions. Both positive and negative subclinical symptoms were related to depression scores. Conclusions. Psychotic symptoms, similar to those in the clinical population, may be associated with cognitive deficits in the general population (AU)

Test modificado de clasificación de tarjetas de Wisconsin: normalización y estandarización de la prueba en población española / Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: standardization and norms of the test for a population sample in Spain

Introducción. El test modificado de clasificación de tarjetas de Wisconsin (M-WCST) es una versión breve y modificada del WCST que evalúa las funciones ejecutivas y la flexibilidad mental. Presenta algunas diferencias y ventajas respecto a otras versiones del WCST que se han descrito en la bibliografía. Objetivo. Estandarizar y desarrollar datos normativos calibrados demográficamente para el M-WCST en una muestra representativa de la población española. Sujetos y métodos. Como parte del proyecto multicéntrico Normacog, se administró el M-WCST a 700 participantes (rango: 18-90 años). Se analizaron el efecto de la edad, el nivel educativo y el sexo sobre el M-WCST, y se crearon percentiles y puntuaciones escalares calibradas demográficamente para cada puntuación directa. Resultados. Se observó un efecto significativo de la edad y del nivel educativo sobre las variables analizadas del M-WCST (categorías correctas, errores perseverativos y errores totales), pero no un efecto significativo del sexo en ninguna de las variables. La edad y la educación explicaban un 5,0-21,2% de la varianza en el M-WCST y mostraron que, a mayor edad y menor nivel de educación formal, el número de categorías correctas disminuía y se cometían mayor cantidad de errores. Conclusión. El presente estudio aporta por primera vez los baremos normativos del M-WCST para la población española teniendo en cuenta las características sociodemográficas de nuestra sociedad. Se confirma la influencia de la edad y el nivel educativo sobre el rendimiento del M-WCST (AU)

Introduction. The Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) is a shorter, modified version of the WCST that assesses executive functioning and mental flexibility. The M-WCST presents some differences and advantages compared to other versions of the WCST, as previously described in the scientific literature. Aim. To standardize and develop demographically-calibrated norms for the M-WCST in a sample representing of the population of Spain. Subjects and methods. This study is part of the multisite Normacog project. Seven hundred participants from 18 to 90 years old were assessed using the M-WCST. The effects of age, sex, and educational level on M-WCST performance were analyzed, and demographically-calibrated percentiles and scaled scores corresponding to each raw score were created. Results. The effect of age and level of education on the M-WCST variables analyzed (correct categories, perseverative errors and total errors) was statistically significant, whereas sex was not significant. Age and education explained 5.0-21.2% of the variance in M-WCST performance. Older participants with lower level of formal education completed fewer category sorts and made more errors than younger and more educated participants. Conclusion. This study reports the first normative data for the M-WCST in a contemporary Spanish sample, taking sociodemographic characteristics of the population into account. The influence of age and level of education on the M-WCST performance was confirmed (AU)

Predominant learning styles among pharmacy students at the Federal University of Paraná, Brazil

Background: Learning styles are cognitive, emotional, and physiological traits, as well as indicators of how learners perceive, interact, and respond to their learning environments. According to Honey-Mumford, learning styles are classified as active, reflexive, theoretical, and pragmatic. Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify the predominant learning styles among pharmacy students at the Federal University of Paraná, Brazil. Methods: An observational, cross-sectional, and descriptive study was conducted using the Honey-Alonso Learning Style Questionnaire. Students in the Bachelor of Pharmacy program were invited to participate in this study. The questionnaire comprised 80 randomized questions, 20 for each of the four learning styles. The maximum possible score was 20 points for each learning style, and cumulative scores indicated the predominant learning styles among the participants. Honey-Mumford (1986) proposed five preference levels for each style (very low, low, moderate, high, and very high), called a general interpretation scale, to avoid student identification with one learning style and ignoring the characteristics of the other styles. Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. Results: This study included 297 students (70% of all pharmacy students at the time) with a median age of 21 years old. Women comprised 77.1% of participants. The predominant style among pharmacy students at the Federal University of Paraná was the pragmatist, with a median of 14 (high preference). The pragmatist style prevails in people who are able to discover techniques related to their daily learning because such people are curious to discover new strategies and attempt to verify whether the strategies are efficient and valid. Because these people are direct and objective in their actions, pragmatists prefer to focus on practical issues that are validated and on problem situations. There was no statistically significant difference between genders with regard to learning styles. Conclusion: The pragmatist style is the prevailing style among pharmacy students at the Federal University of Paraná. Although students may have a learning preference that preference is not the only manner in which students can learn, neither their preference is the only manner in which students can be taught. Awareness of students’ learning styles can be used to adapt the methodology used by teachers to render the teachinglearning process effective and long lasting. The content taught to students should be presented in different manners because varying teaching methods can develop learning skills in students (AU)

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The effect on intelligence quotient of training fluency in relational frames of coordination

Relational training protocols based on Relational Frame Theory (RFT) are showing promising results as regards increased intelligence quotient. This study aimed to analyze the effect on intelligence quotient of a fluency and flexibility training protocol based on relations of coordination. Two students from the same school were the study participants. They were randomly assigned the roles of experimental participant (a boy aged 4 years, 1 month) and control participant (a girl aged 3 years, 11 months). The McCarthy´s Aptitudes and Psychomotricity Scale (MSCA) was used to evaluate cognitive and psychomotor development. The 8-hour training protocol was implemented over a 2-month period. The experimental participant showed an increase of more than 1.5 SD in the General Cognitive Index (GCI) of the MSCA (from 106 to 132) whereas the control participant showed a 10-point increase. The experimental participant partly maintained the improvements at the 6-month follow-up. This study provides further empirical evidence of the potential of RFT training for improving cognitive abilities and intelligence

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Cognition and culture in evolutionary context

In humans and other animals, the individuals’ ability to adapt efficiently and effectively to the niches they have actively contributed to construct relies heavily on an evolved psychology which has been shaped by biological, social, and cultural processes over evolutionary time. As expected, although many of the behavioral and cognitive components of this evolved psychology are widely shared across species, many others are species-unique. Although many animal species are known to acquire group-specific traditions (or cultures) via social learning, human culture is unique in terms of its contents and characteristics (observable and unobservable products, cumulative effects, norm conformity, and norm enforcement) and of its cognitive underpinnings (imitation, instructed teaching, and language). Here we provide a brief overview of some of the issues that are currently tackled in the field. We also highlight some of the strengths of a biological, comparative, non-anthropocentric and evolutionarily grounded approach to the study of culture. The main contributions of this approach to the science of culture are its emphasis (a) on the integration of information on mechanisms, function, and evolution, and on mechanistic factors located at different levels of the biological hierarchy, and (b) on the search for general principles that account for commonalities and differences between species, both in the cultural products and in the processes of innovation, dissemination, and accumulation involved that operate during developmental and evolutionary timespans (AU)

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Is culturally sensitive cognitive behavioral therapy an empirically supported treatment?: the case for hispanics

In this paper we reviewed the literature to determine what 'culturally sensitive' interventions (whereby 'culturally sensitive' was defined as any study that included a specific focus on the cultural group of interest) can be considered well-established, beneficial treatments for use with Hispanic populations. Despite several hundred publications on Hispanics and cultural sensitivity over the past several decades, only 12 peer-reviewed articles that evaluated empirically supported treatments for the mental health disorders most commonly diagnosed among Hispanics were identified. These studies had significant methodological limitations and few employed the 'gold standard' designs associated with randomized clinical trials. From this review we concluded that 1) the ratio of non-empirical to experimental publications is quite high; 2) there is evidence that Hispanics may be effectively treated using conventional cognitive behavioral therapy; 3) there is little evidence that cultural adaptations result in consistently improved effect sizes; and 4) cultural adaptations do not show expected homogeneity regarding cultural tailoring, suggesting that the construct of Hispanic culture is poorly understood (AU)

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La función ejecutiva en la esquizofrenia y su asociación con las habilidades cognitivas sociales (mentalistas) / Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and its association with mentalizing abilities

Introducción. En la esquizofrenia se han encontrado alteraciones en aspectos importantes de la cognición básica y social. El objetivo de este estudio es explorar la relación entre deficiencias en función ejecutiva (FE) y en teoría de la mente(TM) en pacientes que sufren esta enfermedad. Materiales y métodos. Veintidós pacientes de habla hispana y 22 controles emparejados a los primeros en edad, sexo, educación, lengua dominante y CI premórbido fueron evaluados en FE y capacidad de TM. Para evaluar las FE se utilizaron 10 tareas que abarcan 5 dimensiones cognitivas, mientras que, para evaluar la TM, se han usado 3 tareas distintas. Para explorar el grado de asociación entre habilidades ejecutivas y cognitivas sociales (mentalistas) se han empleado técnicas de análisis correlacional. A través del análisis discriminante, se ha examinado la contribución relativa de cada tarea ejecutiva y mentalista a la hora de discriminar entre pacientes y controles. Resultados. Los pacientes presentaron alteraciones tanto en su capacidad ejecutiva como cognitiva social. El análisis de correlación mostró una ausencia de asociación entre las FE y las habilidades de TM dentro del grupo de pacientes, mientras que el patrón fue más bien opuesto en el grupo control. El rendimiento en TM fue más preciso que el rendimiento ejecutivo para predecir a qué grupo pertenecían los participantes. Conclusiones. Aunque los déficits en FE y en TM aparecen conjuntamente en la esquizofrenia, ambos pertenecen a dominios cognitivos distintos y relativamente independientes (AU)

Introduction. Patients with schizophrenia have been found impaired in important aspects of their basic and social cognition. Our aim in this study is to explore the relationship between executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) deficiencies in patients that suffer the illness. Materials and methods. Twenty-two Spanish-speaking inpatients and 22 healthy controls matched in age, sex, education, language dominance, and premorbid IQ were assessed in EF and ToM abilities. The former were assessed using 10 tasks that covered 5 cognitive dimensions and the latter using 3 different tasks. Correlation analyses were used to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities. A series of discriminant function analyses were carried out to examine the relative contribution of each executive and mentalizing task to discriminate between patients and controls. Results. Patients showed impairments in both, executive and ToM abilities. The correlation analyses showed a virtual absence of association between EF and ToM abilities within the group of patients, and an almost opposite pattern within the healthy group. ToM performance was more accurate than executive performance to discriminate patients from controls. Conclusions. Although EFs and ToM deficits come into view together in schizophrenia, they appear to belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains (AU)

Partial scalar invariance and observed differences across gender in a reasoning test battery / Invarianza escalar parcial y diferencias observadas entre sexos en una batería de tests de razonamiento

BACKGROUND: The substantive basis of the Reasoning Test Battery (BPR) is the theory of the hierarchical organization of cognitive abilities and therefore, it combines a general cognitive factor and specific factors associated with abstract, numerical, verbal, practical, spatial and mechanical reasoning. The battery has three forms, covering an age range from 9 to 22 years. METHOD: The present study analyzes the internal structure of the Basque version of the battery using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Factorial invariance studies across gender were performed and partial differences observed were analyzed in a sample of 1,923 students. RESULT: The results concluded: (a) the presence of one general reasoning factor in each of the forms, (b) partial scalar invariance across gender affecting mechanical reasoning and numerical reasoning, (c) no differences in the general reasoning factor, and (d) negligible observed differences in partial scales. CONCLUSIONS: Tests for measurement invariance indicate differences in factor intercepts, cautioning that comparisons of observed g scores across gender are not appropriate

ANTECEDENTES: construida sobre la teoría de la organización jerárquica de las habilidades cognitivas, la Batería de Pruebas de Razonamiento (BPR) combina un factor de razonamiento general y factores específicos asociados con el razonamiento abstracto, numérico, verbal, práctico, espacial y mecánico. La batería tiene 3 Formas que cubren un rango de edad entre 9 y 22 años. MÉTODO: se analizó la estructura interna de la versión en euskera de la batería por medio de análisis factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios. Se llevaron a cabo estudios de invarianza factorial en función del sexo y se analizaron las diferencias observadas en las escalas parciales en una muestra de 1.923 estudiantes. RESULTADOS: los resultados concluyeron: (a) la presencia de un factor de razonamiento general en cada una de las formas, (b) la invarianza escalar parcial que afectan a las escalas de razonamiento mecánico y razonamiento numérico, (c) la no diferenciación entre sexos en el factor general, y (d) diferencias mínimas en las escalas parciales. CONCLUSIONES: los resultados del test de invarianza factorial apuntaron la presencia de valores interceptales diferentes, lo cual desaconseja la comparación de puntuaciones observadas g en función del sexo

Nuevas aproximaciones en detección de mentiras I. Antecedentes y marco teórico / New approaches in deception detection i. Background and theoretical framework

Tradicionalmente, la investigación en detección de mentiras ha asumido que, al mentir, el ser humano muestra espontáneamente indicios conductuales. Sin embargo, las recientes integraciones meta-analíticas constatan que tales indicios no abundan. Esto ha imprimido un cambio de rumbo en la investigación, que ha tomado dos vías distintas: (a) el desarrollo de estrategias activas de entrevista para detectar mentiras y (b) el empleo de indicios contextuales (en lugar de conductuales) de la mentira. Éste es el primero de dos artículos en los que revisamos esta investigación. Empezamos describiendo las orientaciones tradicionales, así como las evidencias que las cuestionan y que justifican el cambio de orientación, y argumentamos que las nuevas estrategias activas de entrevista deben fundamentarse en modelos teóricos sólidos y coherentes de base cognitiva. En el siguiente artículo (de esta misma sección monográfica), se describen específicamente estrategias concretas de entrevista para detectar mentiras, así como la orientación de los indicios contextuales

Deception detection research has traditionally assumed that when humans deceive they spontaneously display tell-tale behavioural indicators. However, recent meta-analytical integrations reveal that such indicators do not abound. This has produced a shift in deception research, which has taken two different directions: (a) the development of active interviewing strategies to detect deception, and (b) the use of contextual (rather than behavioural) indicators of deception. This paper is the first of two articles where we review this research. We begin by describing the traditional approaches, as well as the evidence that questions these approaches and justifies the shift in focus. We also argue that the new active interviewing approaches should be grounded on solid and coherent cognitive models. In the subsequent article (published in this same issue), specific interviewing strategies to detect deception will be described along with the contextual indicia approach

El poder de las teorías. El papel de los determinantes paradigmáticos en la comprensión psicoanalítica / The role of paradigmatic determinants in psychoanalytic understanding

El trabajo intenta describir la naturaleza de las diferencias entre las teorías psicoanalíticas. Se parte de la comparación del análisis del Hombre de los Lobos hecho por Freud con las relecturas realizadas por Klein y por Lacan y Leclaire. Se demuestra: -Que los modos de percibir no son idénticos: cada uno de los autores apoya su interpretación en aspectos distintos del material, lo que conduce al problema epistemológico designado por Stegmüller como 'inconmensurabilidad empírica'. -Que los modos de pensar la interpretación son también diferentes: el tipo de preguntas que cada uno se formula, la clase de requisitos metodológicos implícitos y el modelo o ideal de comprensión son diferentes. -Que los puntos de vista metapsicológicos postulados, la manera de definir el estatus científico del psicoanálisis y el 'compromiso ontológico' de cada una de ellas también son específicos y diferentes. Se concluye que, por tratarse de distantes paradigmas (el sentido de Kuhn), entran en juego no solo elementos nocionales y cognitivos sino también preaceptaciones, acitudes, valores y fantasías (AU)

This paper describes the nature of the differences between psychoanalytic theories. It is based on a comparison of the analysis of the Wolf Man by Freud, and Klein´s, Lacan and Leclaire´s readings of it. It shows that: -Material is not perceived in an identical fashion. Each of the authors bases their interpretation on different aspects of the material, which leads to the epistemological problem named empirical incommensurability by Stegmüller. The ways in which the interpretation is thought about are also different: the type of questions they ask themselves, the implied methodological requirements and their model or ideal understanding are different. The metapsychological points of view postulated, the way the scientific status of psychoanalysis is defined, and the ontological commitment in each point of view are also specific and different. The author concludes that because they are different paradigms (in Kuhn´s sense), not only are notional and cognitive elements brought into play, but also presuppositions, attitudes, values and fantasies (AU)

Ignoring facial emotion expressions does not eliminate their influence on cooperation decisions / Ignorar las emociones de otros no evita su efecto en nuestras decisiones cooperativas

Whereas the automaticity of emotion processing has been investigated in several cognitive domains, its mandatory influence on cooperative decision-making is still unexplored. We employed an interference-task to evaluate whether explicit instructions to ignore the emotions of others during alleged interpersonal interactions override their behavioral effects. Participants played a Trust Game multiple times with eight cooperative or non-cooperative partners, who displayed facial expressions of happiness or anger. Emotions were non-predictive regarding the partners’ cooperation. In Experiments 1 and 2 participants were explicitly asked to ignore the emotions, and the uncertainty about the partners’ behavior varied. We found an effect of emotional interference; whereas happy partners speeded cooperative decisions, angry ones speeded non-cooperative choices. This was replicated in Experiment 3, where the request of ignoring emotions was removed. Our results show the inevitable influence of the emotional displays of others during cooperation decisions, which fits with theories that contend for a tight link between emotions and social context (AU)

Pese a que la influencia ejercida por el procesamiento de las emociones ha sido estudiada en diferentes dominios cognitivos, el papel de estas durante la toma decisiones en contextos sociales queda aún por explorar. Utilizamos una tarea de interferencia con el fin de estudiar en qué grado es posible evitar la influencia de las emociones de otras personas cuando nos encontramos en interacción con ellas. Los participantes jugaron, en múltiples rondas, al Juego de la Confianza con ocho compañeros que podían ser de tipo cooperativo o no cooperativo, y cuya expresión facial podía ser de felicidad o de enfado. Las emociones de los compañeros de juego no eran predictivas, en ningún caso, de su grado de cooperación. Tanto en el Experimento 1 como en el Experimento 2 los participantes fueron instruidos de manera explícita que debían ignorar las expresiones emocionales de sus compañeros. La validez de la información personal (el grado de cooperación) fue manipulada entre ambos expresultados revelaron un efecto de interferencia emocional; las expresiones de felicidad redujeron el tiempo necesario para tomar la decisión de cooperación, mientras que las expresiones de enfado acortaron las decisiones de no cooperación. Este efecto de interferencia fue replicado en el Experimento 3, en el que la instrucción explícita de ignorar las emociones de los compañeros había sido eliminada.Nuestros resultados muestran que las emociones de otros nos influyen de manera inevitable durante nuestra interacción con ellos. Esta evidencia es coherente con las teorías que defienden la existencia de un estrecho vínculo entre emociones y contexto social (AU)

Styles of counterfactual thoughts in people with and without signs of depression

People in a depressive state frequently believe that things could have happened differently in their lives, which is regarded as counterfactual thought. This study aimed to investigate whether the styles of counterfactual thought shown by people with indicating signs of depression and by people without any of those signs are different. Study participants were 42 adults divided into two groups: those with signs of depression and those without signs of depression. Five stories taken from newspapers and magazines and fictional scenarios were presented to the participants. After reading such stories, participants had to answer questions about how the narrated facts could have been different from what they actually were. Results indicated similar counterfactual thought styles in both groups (with and without depression signs). Most of the thoughts found were categorized as upward, subtractive, self-referent and that modified an aspect referred to action/inaction. A few significant differences between groups were observed, and most of them were obtained through directed modifications, in the last three stories. Some tendencies were shown in the group of people with signs of depression, such as those found for the subtractive category, t(40) = 2.33, p < .05, which can indicate a trend of possible failure in the preparatory function of CT, and in the hetero-referral function, t(40) = 1.97, p < .05, indicating a difficulty in thinking of different forms of action in the future. The removal of negative events may indicate that these experiences are not beneficial to people’s survival. These results may indicate some tendencies about how people in depressive states think about past events (AU)

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Retos en la rehabilitación cognitiva de la esclerosis múltiple / Challenges in cognitive rehabilitation for multiple sclerosis

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¿Sufren deterioro cognitivo los ancianos sin enfermedades cerebrales? Datos de la cohorte NEDICES / Do the elderly people without brain diseases suffer cognitive impairment? Data from the NEDICES cohort

Objetivo: evaluar el cambio cognitivo durante 3 años en los participantes del estudio NEDICES (acrónimo de Neurological Disorders in Central Spain) sin enfermedades neurológicas. Población y métodos: la cohorte NEDICES es un estudio poblacional censal que incluye a 5278 personas mayores (con una edad igual o mayor de 65 años). Para este estudio se seleccionaron participantes sin enfermedades neurológicas y que habían realizado el Mini-Mental State Examination-37 (MMSE-37) en dos cortes (1994-1995 y 1997-1998). El cambio cognitivo se calculó mediante las diferencias (DIF) en la puntuación obtenida en el MMSE-37 en ambos cortes. Según la variable DIF, la muestra se estratificó en tres grupos: con declive cognitivo (pérdida de más de 3 puntos), sin cambio cognitivo (DIF no superior a 3 puntos en valor absoluto), y mejora cognitiva (ganancia de más de 3 puntos). Se estableció una comparación de variables relevantes (médicas y psicosociales) entre los tres grupos mediante análisis de varianza y la prueba de la chi-cuadrado. Resultados: cumplieron los criterios de inclusión 2039 participantes, con una edad media de 72,2 años (desviación estándar [DE] = 5,7). La variable DIF se distribuyó normalmente y conllevó un decremento mínimo (media [M] = -0,8 puntos; DE = 3,6). El grupo de declive cognitivo estuvo integrado por 433 sujetos (22 %), el grupo sin cambio por 1311 (64 %) y el de mejora por 275 (13 %). No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los grupos en comorbilidad ni salud subjetiva; el grupo con declive cognitivo tenía más edad, menor nivel de estudios, hacía menos ejercicio, sufría un leve declive en las actividades instrumentales, y probablemente esté integrado mayoritariamente por casos de deterioro cognitivo leve (MCI, del inglés mild cognitive impairment). Conclusión: el declive cognitivo en los participantes seleccionados fue poco relevante; el grupo con deterioro cognitivo debe estar integrado mayoritariamente por casos de MCI incidentes (AU)

Objective: To assess the cognitive change along three years of the NEDICES (Neurological disorders in Central Spain) participants. Population and methods: The NEDICES cohort is a census population-based study integrated by 5278 elderly (65 years and older). For this study, participants with MMSE-37 and without neurological illnesses in two waves (1994-5 y 1997-8) were selected. The cognitive change of individuals was calculated by the differences (DIF) on MMSE37 scores in both waves. According to the DIF, the sample was stratified in three groups: cognitive decline group (loss > three points in MSSE-37), group without cognitive change (change no higher than three points in absolute value) and cognitive improvement group (gain > three points). The three groups were compared in relevant medical and psychosocial variables by means of analysis of variance and chi-square test. Results: 2039 (mean age = 72.21; SD = 5.72) participants met the criteria for inclusion in the study. The variable DIF showed a normal distribution and had a minimal decrement (mean = -0.8; SD = 3.63). The cognitive decline group was integrated by 433 (22 %) subjects, the group without cognitive change by 1331 (64 %), and the group of cognitive improvement by 275 (13 %). No significant differences among groups were found in comorbidities or subjective health. The cognitive decline group was more aged, less educated, performed less physical exercise, suffered slight worsening in instrumental activities and probably was highly integrated by cases of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Conclusion: The selected participants had an insignificant cognitive decline; the cognitive decline group probably is mainly integrated by MCI cases (AU)

Screening enterprising personality in youth: an empirical model

Entrepreneurial attitudes of individuals are determined by different variables, some of them related to the cognitive and personality characteristics of the person, and others focused on contextual aspects. The aim of this study is to review the essential dimensions of enterprising personality and develop a test that will permit their thorough assessment. Nine dimensions were identified: achievement motivation, risk taking, innovativeness, autonomy, internal locus of control, external locus of control, stress tolerance, self-efficacy and optimism. For the assessment of these dimensions, 161 items were developed which were applied to a sample of 416 students, 54% male and 46% female (M = 17.89 years old, SD = 3.26). After conducting several qualitative and quantitative analyses, the final test was composed of 127 items with acceptable psychometric properties. Alpha coefficients for the subscales ranged from .81 to .98. The validity evidence relative to the content was provided by experts (V = .71, 95% CI = .56 - .85). Construct validity was assessed using different factorial analyses, obtaining a dimensional structure in accordance with the proposed model of nine interdependent dimensions as well as a global factor that groups these nine dimensions (explained variance = 49.07%; χ2/df = 1.78; GFI= .97; SRMR = .07). Nine out of the 127 items showed Differential Item Functioning as a function of gender (p < .01, R2 >.035). The results obtained are discussed and future lines of research analyzed (AU)

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