Rabies in equids in Sudan.

Rabies is endemic in Sudan with continuing outbreaks occurring annually, the most common animals affected are dogs, followed by goats and equids. This work focused on equid rabies, to elucidate the current situation of the disease through analysis of reports of equid rabies outbreaks in Sudan during 2010-2022 supported by laboratory confirmation of the disease. During the study period, 66 animals were affected during 35 equid rabies outbreaks. The highest incidences were found in Al Gezira (30.3%), followed by Darfur (24.2%) and Kordofan (15.2%). The highest incidence rate was observed during 2018 (33.3%), followed by 2015 (16.7%). Within seasons, the highest incidence rate was reported during October - December (33.3%), followed by July - September (30.3%). Chi-square analysis revealed a significant correlation between rabid animals and year, season, and state. Wald statistics demonstrated that year and season had a significant association with the disease. Virus antigen was identified (72.2%) in brain tissues using the fluorescent antibody test. Viral nucleic acid was amplified (n = 6) with a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay.Contribution: As equids are kept in close contact with humans and other animals in the country, according to the present investigation, equid rabies in Sudan is a potential public health concern, emphasising the importance of implementing effective control measures.

Enhancing infection control practices and biosecurity plans on Swedish pig farms: insights, challenges, and strategies.

BACKGROUND: African swine fever (ASF) poses a threat to the global pig industry, leading to significant economic losses and widespread disruptions in pig farming and associated sectors. In September 2023, the first case of ASF in Swedish wild boar triggered immediate responses from authorities, including the establishment of restricted zones and culling measures. A new ASF certification programme for pig herds was initiated to improve biosecurity and proactive disease management. This survey aimed to assess the sentiments and actions of Swedish pig farmers six months post-outbreak, particularly regarding biosecurity measures. Such information is important to improve preparedness for future disease threats. A questionnaire was distributed to members of the Swedish pig producers' organisation. RESULTS: A total of 113 farmers responded (response rate 27%), with the majority considering the risk of ASF reappearing in Sweden as high. The estimated cost for connecting the farms to the ASF certification programme varied greatly, with a majority identifying cost as a substantial hurdle. While many farmers sought biosecurity advice from veterinarians, 43% had not implemented suggested measures. Over one third had not received concrete measures that would fit their farms, and 14% had not received any biosecurity advice from veterinarians at all. Discussions among farmers emphasized concerns about ASF outbreaks, transmission mechanisms, and regulatory compliance, highlighting the importance of ongoing communication and knowledge exchange to address the challenges posed by ASF effectively. Additionally, participants also mentioned the role of dense wild boar populations and shortcomings in municipal food waste management as important risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: The responding farmers expressed widespread concern about new ASF outbreaks. A majority identified cost as a substantial hurdle for joining the ASF certification programme. While many farmers consulted veterinarians for advice on biosecurity, a significant number had yet to implement suggested measures and one third had not received specific guidance suitable for their farms. Stakeholder conversations highlighted concerns about ASF outbreaks, transmission, and compliance. They also discussed the role of dense wild boar populations and issues with municipal food waste management as significant risk factors for ASF.

Pathological, immunological and molecular epidemiological analysis of lumpy skin disease virus in Indian cattle during a high-mortality epidemic.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically significant, emerging viral disease of Cattle and Buffaloes. This study aimed to investigate the causes of high mortality in a recent LSD epidemic in India. We examined 1618 animals across seventy outbreaks and conducted post-mortem on 48 cattle out of 513 clinically suspected LSD cases. The morbidity, mortality and case fatality rates recorded were 31.70%, 2.97 and 9.37% respectively. Disease stages were categorized as early (20.81%), mid (42.02%), and late (37.17%) and the distribution of skin lesions was classified as mild (34.14%), moderate (39.39%), and severe (26.47%). Post-mortem findings revealed systemic infection with necrotic and ulcerative nodules on multiple internal organs. Histologically, necrotizing vasculitis and mononuclear cell infiltration with intracytoplasmic inclusions were observed in various organs. The highest viral load was found in skin nodules/scabs, trachea, tongue, and lymph nodes. The viral load was significantly higher in mid- and late-stages of skin nodules and internal organs; whereas, blood from early-stage showed high viral load. The expression of Th1-type and Th2-type cytokines varied significantly across different stages of the disease. The downregulation of the apoptotic intrinsic and upregulation of the extrinsic pathway genes, suggesting that the latter plays a role in LSDV infection. Genetic analysis revealed that the LSD virus (LSDV) isolates were derived from a Kenyan ancestral strain with unique nucleotide changes in RPO30 and P32 gene. In conclusion, the high mortality in the recent Indian LSD epidemic can be attributed to a newly identified, highly virulent strain of LSDV causing systemic infection.

Control of swine dysentery at national level in Sweden.

BACKGROUND: Swine dysentery, caused by Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, is a severe pig disease. Resistance to tylosins is common and resistance to tiamulin has been reported since the 1990s. Still, dysentery is not notifiable to authorities. The disease therefore escapes control from an overall population perspective. In Sweden, a program that aimed to control dysentery at national level was initiated in 2020, mainly due to the unexpected diagnosis of tiamulin resistant Brachyspira hyodysenteriae in 2016. RESULTS: Through joint efforts of a network including farmers, government, animal health organisations and abattoirs it was concluded that outbreaks of dysentery had taken place in 25 herds between 2016 and 2019. By 1 January 2020, nine of these herds were still not declared free from the disease. From that date, the network decided that Brachyspira hyodysenteriae was to be cultured whenever dysentery could be suspected. Thus, 148, 157 and 124 herds were scrutinised for Brachyspira hyodysenteriae in 2020, 2021 and 2022, respectively, whereof five, three and two new herds were confirmed positive. By 31 December 2022, four herds were judged as impossible to sanitise. However, they posed no problem since they were identified by the network, pigs to and from these enterprises could be transported without jeopardising other herds. When Brachyspira hyodysenteriae was diagnosed in fattening herds purchasing growers, Brachyspira hyodysenteriae could not be detected in the delivering herds. That result, together with other observations, indicated that Brachyspira hyodysenteriae ought to be regarded as ubiquitous, although at a low level in healthy pigs. CONCLUSIONS: Eradication of dysentery contributed to substantial welfare and financial improvements in affected herds. Dysentery was controlled successfully at national level through the united efforts from competing stake holders, such as different abattoirs and animal health organisations. However, as Brachyspira hyodysenteriae was assumed to be ubiquitous, although at a low level in healthy pigs, the duration of the successful control of dysentery was concluded to only be transient. Without permanent monitoring for Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, the knowledge of the national status will rapidly decline to the level prior to the initiation of the control program.

Molecular Detection and Genetic Characterization of Avian Leukosis Virus From Field Outbreaks in Bangladesh.

Avian leukosis is a significant viral disease affecting chicken populations globally, including Bangladesh, resulting in high mortality and morbidity rates and causing substantial economic losses in the commercial poultry industry. This study aimed to detect avian leukosis virus (ALV) during recent outbreaks in Bangladesh, utilising a molecular-based approach. A total of 14 liver samples were collected from the suspected layer flocks in Bangladesh. The diagnosis of ALV infection in chickens was confirmed through necropsy, histopathological examinations, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and sequence analysis. Gross observations revealed severe liver enlargement with scattered white nodules on the surface in the infected chickens. Histopathological observations showed the infiltration of huge mononuclear inflammatory cells in the periportal area of liver and microvesicular fatty degeneration and necrosis of some hepatocytes. RT-PCR results identified three samples positive for the env gene of ALV. Sequence analysis of the env genes demonstrated high homology among the identified strains (97%-98%) and with reference strains (92%-96%) at the nucleotide level. The phylogenetic tree revealed close relatedness of the three identified strains to reference strains from India, USA, and China. Mutational analysis indicated several mutations throughout the envelope glycoprotein of the identified strains. Protein structure analysis showed minor changes in the hydrophobic region of the envelope protein of the identified strains. In conclusion, this study, the first detailed investigation in Bangladesh, contributes to understanding ALV epidemiology, highlights genetic diversity, and emphasises the necessity for further investigations and the implementation of effective control measures in the affected regions.

Rewiring cattle movements to limit infection spread.

Cattle tracing databases have become major resources for representing demographic processes of livestock and assessing potential risk of infections spreading by trade. The herds registered in these databases are nodes of a network of commercial movements, which can be altered to lower the risk of disease transmission. In this study, we develop an algorithm aimed at reducing the number of infected animals and herds, by rewiring specific movements responsible for trade flows from high- to low-prevalence herds. The algorithm is coupled with a generic computational model based on the French cattle movement tracing database (BDNI), and used to describe different scenarios for the spread of infection within and between herds from a recent outbreak (epidemic) or a five-year-old outbreak (endemic). Results show that rewiring successfully contains infections to a limited number of herds, especially if the outbreak is recent and the estimation of disease prevalence frequent, while the respective impact of the parameters of the algorithm depend on the infection parameters. Allowing any animal movement from high to low-prevalence herds reduces the effectiveness of the algorithm in epidemic settings, while frequent and fine-grained prevalence assessments improve the impact of the algorithm in endemic settings. Our approach focusing on a few commercial movements is expected to lead to substantial improvements in the control of a targeted disease, although changes in the network structure should be monitored for potential vulnerabilities to other diseases. This general algorithm could be applied to any network of controlled individual movements liable to spread disease.

First report on the occurrence of psoroptic mange in llamas (Lama glama) of the Andean region.

An outbreak of Psoroptes sp.-caused mange was detected in a llama herd of Larcas, Jujuy province, Argentina. Infested llamas showed alopecia, erythema, hyperpigmentation, hyperkeratosis, and inflammation of the ear pinnae, as well as crusts and serous, serosanguineous, or purulent drainage with unpleasant smell in the external ear canal. Microscopic evaluation of skin scrapings revealed 0.5- to 0.7-mm-long acari identified as Psoroptes sp. based on their morphology. Histology showed a typical allergic reaction with perivascular to periadnexal mixed inflammatory infiltrate. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene sequences analyzed from the sampled acari clustered into a single P. ovis clade including sequences isolated from rabbits and bighorn sheep, with P. natalensis as a sister taxon that infested bighorn sheep from the USA. Phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome b sequences showed three well-supported clades, one of which contained the sequences of the Larcas llamas and US bighorn sheep isolates. This is the first report on P. ovis infestation of llamas raised in their original location. Investigations on mange etiological agents acting on South American camelids and their distribution are necessary to implement control strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of these parasitic infections.

Utilizing citizen science data to rapidly assess changing associations between wild birds and avian influenza outbreaks in poultry.

High pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) is a rapidly evolving virus causing significant economic and environmental harm. Wild birds are a key viral reservoir and an important source of viral incursions into animal populations, including poultry. However, we lack a thorough understanding of which species drive incursions and whether this changes over time. We explored associations between the abundances of 152 avian species and outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in poultry premises across Great Britain between October 2021 and January 2023. Spatial generalized additive models were used, with species abundance distributions sourced from eBird. Associations were investigated at the species-specific level and across species aggregations. During autumn/winter, associations were generally strongest with waterbirds such as ducks and geese; however, we also found significant associations in groups such as non-native gamebirds and rapid change in species-specific associations over time. Our results demonstrate the value of citizen science to rapidly explore wild species as potential facilitators of disease incursions into well-monitored populations, especially in regions where viral surveillance in wild species is limited. This can be a critical step towards prioritizing targeted surveillance that could inform species-specific biosecurity measures; particularly for HPAIV, which has undergone sudden shifts in host range and continues to rapidly evolve.

Dictyocaulosis in cattle: Retrospective analysis of 20 outbreaks in Central Argentina.

Bovine lungworms (Dictyocaulus viviparus) are nematodes which cause a respiratory disease known as verminous bronchitis or pneumonia. In this paper, we describe 20 outbreaks of bovine dictyocaulosis recorded between 2000 and 2023 in Central Argentina. Outbreaks occurred more frequently during the autumn-winter season (from April to August) and affected cattle under 1 year old in beef production systems. An average morbidity and mortality of 26.22 % and 8.44 % were registered, respectively. The main clinical signs observed were respiratory distress (coughing, tachypnea, dyspnea, and nasal discharge), weight loss, weakness, decubitus, and diarrhea. Necropsies were performed in thirty-one calves, heifers, and steers. Gross findings included diffuse interstitial or multifocal pneumonia, with marbled appearance intermingling atelectasis and red-gray firm areas of consolidation, and subpleural and interlobular emphysema and edema. Microscopically, lungs were characterized by abundant edema and mixed intra-alveolar multifocal to coalescent infiltrate. Frequently, adult worms and/or larvae were spotted in the bronchi or alveoli, respectively. Some cases exhibited proliferation of type 2 pneumocytes and hyaline membranes covering the alveolar septa. Co-infections with gastrointestinal nematodes were frequently found in fecal samples. Given the perspective of anthelmintic resistance and future changes in environmental conditions due to climate change, integrated parasitic control strategies are mandatory and should be tailored to each production system. The information gathered in this research provides an overview of lungworm infections in livestock production systems from Central Argentina and could be useful for surveilling, monitoring and designing strategic interventions for the control of this important parasitic disease in the region.

Sentinel chicken surveillance reveals previously undetected circulation of West Nile virus in the Netherlands.

West Nile virus (WNV) was first detected in the Netherlands in 2020, with circulation observed in birds, mosquitoes, and humans in two geographical areas. Usutu virus (USUV) has been circulating in the Netherlands since 2016. Following the detection of WNV in the Netherlands, we investigated the possible use of petting zoos as urban sentinel sites to examine the extent of WNV and USUV circulation around the two WNV outbreak locations. Chickens at petting zoos and in backyards were sampled within a 15-kilometer radius of the confirmed WNV circulation areas at three timepoints over one year (2021-2022). Sera were analysed using a protein microarray for binding antibodies to orthoflavivirus NS1 antigens and reactive samples were confirmed through micro-focus reduction neutralization tests (mFRNT). Furthermore, mosquitoes at sampling locations were collected to assess their blood feeding behaviour. This serosurvey detected the circulation of USUV and WNV in petting zoo and backyard chickens in 2021, both within and outside the 2020 outbreak areas. The WNV circulation was not detected by other existing surveillance schemes in mosquitoes, wild birds, horses and humans. In addition, the results show rapid decay of USUV antibodies in approximately 20 weeks. Our findings support the utility and the added value of petting zoo chickens as sentinels for monitoring USUV and WNV circulation compared to other available methods. Seroconversions observed in petting zoos and backyard chickens living in or near densely populated urban areas further highlighted potential public health risks that went undetected.

Candidate Genes Associated with Survival Following Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Infection in Chickens.

Highly pathogenic strains of avian influenza (HPAI) devastate poultry flocks and result in significant economic losses for farmers due to high mortality, reduced egg production, and mandated euthanization of infected flocks. Within recent years, HPAI outbreaks have affected egg production flocks across the world. The H5N2 outbreak in the US in 2015 resulted in over 99% mortality. Here, we analyze sequence data from chickens that survived (42 cases) along with uninfected controls (28 samples) to find genomic regions that differ between these two groups and that, therefore, may encompass prime candidates that are resistant to HPAI. Blood samples were obtained from survivors of the 2015 HPAI outbreak plus age and genetics-matched non-affected controls. A whole-genome sequence was obtained, and genetic variants were characterized and used in a genome-wide association study to identify regions showing significant association with survival. Regions associated with HPAI resistance were observed on chromosomes 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 15, 20, and 28, with a number of candidate genes identified. We did not detect a specific locus which could fully explain the difference between survivors and controls. Influenza virus replication depends on multiple components of the host cellular machinery, with many genes involved in the host response.

Detection and Monitoring of Highly Pathogenic Influenza A Virus 2.3.4.4b Outbreak in Dairy Cattle in the United States.

The emergence and spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A subtype H5N1 (HP H5N1-IAV), particularly clade H5N1 2.3.4.4b, pose a severe global health threat, affecting various species, including mammals. Historically, cattle have been considered less susceptible to IAV, but recent outbreaks of H5N1-IAV 2.3.4.4b in dairy farms suggest a shift in host tropism, underscoring the urgency of expanded surveillance and the need for adaptable diagnostic tools in outbreak management. This study investigated the presence of anti-nucleoprotein (NP) antibodies in serum and milk and viral RNA in milk on dairy farms affected by outbreaks in Texas, Kansas, and Michigan using a multi-species IAV ELISA and RT-qPCR. The analysis of ELISA results from a Michigan dairy farm outbreak demonstrated a positive correlation between paired serum and milk sample results, confirming the reliability of both specimen types. Our findings also revealed high diagnostic performance during the convalescent phase (up to 96%), further improving sensitivity through serial sampling. Additionally, the evaluation of diagnostic specificity using serum and milk samples from IAV-free farms showed an excellent performance (99.6%). This study underscores the efficacy of the IAV NP-blocking ELISA for detecting and monitoring H5N1-IAV 2.3.4.4b circulation in dairy farms, whose recent emergence raises significant animal welfare and zoonotic concerns, necessitating expanded surveillance efforts.

Space-time cluster analysis and maximum entropy modeling of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in Türkiye.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an economically important highly serious transboundary disease that mainly occurs in small ruminants such as sheep and goats. The aim of this study was to identify the probability of risk and and space-time clusters of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Türkiye. The occurrence of PPR in Türkiye from 2017 to 2019 was investigated in this study using spatial analysis based on geographic information system (GIS). Between these dates, it was determined that 337 outbreaks and 18,467 cases. The highest number of outbreaks were detected in the Central Anatolia region. It was determined that PPR is seen more intensely in sheep compared to goats in Türkiye. In this study, 34 environmental variables (19 bioclimatic, 12 precipitation, altitude and small livestock density variables) were used to explore the environmental influences on PPR outbreak by maximum entropy modeling (Maxent). The clusters of PPR in Türkiye were identified using the retrospective space-time scan data that were computed using the space-time permutation model. A PPR prediction model was created using data on PPR outbreaks combination with environmental variables. Nineteen significant (p < 0.001) space-time clusters were determined. It was discovered that the variables altitude, sheep density, precipitation in june, and average temperature in the warmest season made important contributions to the model and the PPR outbreak may be strongly related with these variables. In this study, PPR in Türkiye has been characterized significantly spatio-temporal and enviromental factors. In this context, the disease pattern and obtained these findings will contribute to policymakers in the prevention and control of the disease.

Epidemiology, genetic characterization and population structure analysis of lumpy skin disease virus from North India.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a transboundary, viral disease of cattle with a significant economic impact on the livestock industry. This study describes the epidemiological investigations of outbreaks of LSD that occurred in 2022 in three Indian states viz., Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan and the genetic characterization of Lumpy skin disease viruses (LSDVs). Also, the population structure analysis of LSDVs was carried out. Out of 138 scab samples tested from suspected cattle for LSDV, 106 were found positive. Of these, nine representative scab samples were further genetically characterized. Phylogenetic analysis based on the P32 and EEV gene sequences depicted that the LSDV strains of the present study had nucleotide identity of 100% and 99.10-99.45%, respectively with the LSDV/2019 field strains of India. Multiple sequence alignment of the EEV glycoprotein gene sequences revealed nucleotide polymorphisms at three positions viz., G178A, G253A and A459G in circulating LSDV/2022 field strains. Based on the median joining network analysis of the EEV gene, 12 haplotypes were identified among the LSDV populations. Population structure analysis corresponding to the EEV gene revealed high haplotype (0.8486 ± 0.026) and low nucleotide diversities (0.00636 ± 0.0006) and negative values for neutrality indices, indicating a high number of closely related haplotypes and the studied population may have undergone a recent expansion. The findings will help in understanding the distribution and dynamics of LSDV populations, which will prove pivotal in designing and implementing effective management and control strategies.

Whole-genome analysis of resilience based on the stability of reproduction performance during a porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus outbreak in sows.

The Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) is a very prevalent viral pathogen that can induce reproductive failure in infected sows. PRRSV infection can result in smaller litters, foetal death, late-term abortions and retarded growth of infected piglets. Not all sows respond equally to the infection partly due to genetic factors. In this study, we aimed to characterise the genetic variability of pig resilience to PRRSV infection by using a stability reproductive performance (SRP) index as a proxy of resilience. By comparing reproductive data from 183 sows, we selected 48 sows with extreme SRP values, measured as the difference in piglets lost at farrowings before and during a PRRSV outbreak. Short-read DNA fragments were sequenced from selected sows using an Illumina platform. The analysis of whole-genome sequencing information identified 16 genome regions associated with the SRP classification (cut-off P-value < 10-6). Functional evaluation of the positional candidates by gene-ontology identifiers and their participation in biological pathways were used to identify genes involved in virus entry and replication (vimentin, RAC1 and OAZ2) but also in immune responses from the host (IRF1, and IL4, IL5 and IL13). Importantly, genes related to chemokines, extracellular proteins and cell-to-cell junction integrity might contribute to placental microseparations, facilitating the trafficking of viral particles from sow to foetus that takes place during the pathogenesis of transplacental PRRSV infection. However, given the small number of animals in the study, these results shall need to be validated in larger populations.

The first outbreak of Lumpy Skin Disease in Indonesia.

This study describes the first outbreak of Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) in cattle in the Bengkalis region, Indonesia, and vaccination to control the epidemic. Data on the outbreak and vaccination was obtained from the local veterinary authority of the Bengkalis region, Indonesia. Climatological data was provided by the Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency of Riau Province. Over the 5.5 months, the outbreak caused 10.4% (94/906) morbidity and 0.6% (6/906) mortality of cattle on infected farms. Temporally, three epidemic waves occurred during the outbreak period. Villages with cattle populations of > 150 animals (n = 36) were 5.3 times more likely to be infected with LSD compared to villages with smaller cattle populations (n = 107) (CI: 2.56-10.90, P < 0.01). The vaccination campaign covered 43.8% of cattle in villages within a 10 km radius of the cases. However, vaccination in villages with larger cattle populations (n = 29) was 0.63 less likely to cover 50% of the cattle populations compared to villages with smaller cattle populations (n = 41) (CI: 0.39-1.02, P = 0.05). By the time the first two and the major waves ceased, vaccination had covered only 0.0% (n = 6036), 27.8% (n = 6,036) and 9.7% (n = 5,697) of the cattle in the 10 km radius of the respective spatial clusters. The outbreak was statistically associated with rainfall and its interaction with temperature (F(2, 13) = 5.822, R2 = 0.47, P = 0.016). This study indicates that the LSD outbreak had low morbidity and mortality. Despite the low vaccination rate, the outbreak ceased, possibly due to plummeting of the abundance of insect vectors.

Association between highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks and weather conditions in Japan.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) poses a significant threat to animal and public health, with outbreaks occurring globally. HPAI poses significant challenges due to its high mortality rate and public health concerns, with outbreaks spreading globally since the emergence of the H5N1 virus in 2003. In Japan, HPAI outbreaks have been particularly prevalent during autumn and winter seasons, with the 2022-2023 winter experiencing the most severe outbreak to date. However, limited research has directly examined the association between HPAI outbreaks and weather conditions in Japan. Here we show that specific weather conditions are associated with an increased risk of HPAI outbreaks on poultry farms in Japan. By analyzing databases of HPAI cases and meteorological data from 2020-2023, we found that higher average air temperatures two to three weeks prior, lower average wind speeds four weeks prior, and longer sunlight hours two and four weeks prior to outbreaks were significantly associated with increased risk of HPAI outbreaks in Japan. These results suggest that weather may influence environmental survival and transmission of the virus, as well as patterns of wild bird movement that could seed new outbreaks. These findings enhance our understanding of the factors influencing HPAI transmission dynamics and highlight the importance of integrating weather forecasts into disease surveillance and prevention strategies.

Using EPIWATCH® open-source surveillance to describe the epidemiology of lumpy skin disease outbreaks in South and Southeast Asia (2022-2023).

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) poses a significant threat to animal welfare and leads to economic losses in affected countries. LSD outbreaks may also impact trade and regional relationships. South and Southeast Asia, with its dense livestock population and intricate trade networks, are susceptible to LSD outbreaks. Indonesia confirmed its first LSD cases in March 2022, leading to substantial livestock losses by August 2023. Australia, an important player in the global beef industry, faced trade disruptions due to LSD concerns raised by Indonesia and Malaysia, claims that were refuted by Australian authorities. The dispute highlights the need for good surveillance. EPIWATCH®, employing artificial intelligence, provides real-time outbreak signals, and spatial analysis can identify LSD hotspots, leading to timely interventions. This study uses data collected by the EPIWATCH® open-source disease surveillance system at the University of New South Wales in 2022 and 2023 and compares it for timeliness and completeness with data available on the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS). We found more timely reports of LSD outbreaks in EPIWATCH® compared to WAHIS. In conclusion, open-source surveillance tools like EPIWATCH® can provide timely alerts of disease emergence, such as LSD outbreaks in South and Southeast Asia, which can supplement formal reporting systems.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A Virus in Wild Migratory Birds, Qinghai Lake, China, 2022.

In July 2022, an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus clade 2.3.4.4b occurred among migratory birds at Qinghai Lake in China. The virus circulated in June, and reassortants emerged after its introduction into the area. Surveillance in 2023 showed that the virus did not establish a stable presence in wild waterfowl.

Infection of South American coatis (Nasua nasua) with highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus displaying mammalian adaptive mutations.

Deadly outbreaks among poultry, wild birds, and carnivorous mammals by the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus of the clade 2.3.4.4b have been reported in South America. The increasing virus incidence in various mammal species poses a severe zoonotic and pandemic threat. In Uruguay, the clade 2.3.4.4b viruses were first detected in February 2023, affecting wild birds and backyard poultry. Three months after the first reported case in Uruguay, the disease affected a population of 23 coatis (Nasua) in an ecological park. Most animals became infected, likely directly or indirectly from wild birds in the park, and experienced sudden death. Five animals from the colony survived, and four of them developed antibodies. The genomes of the H5N1 strains infecting coatis belonged to the B3.2 genotype of the clade 2.3.4.4b. Genomes from coatis were closely associated with those infecting backyard poultry, but transmission likely occurred through wild birds. Notable, two genomes have a 627K substitution in the RNA polymerase PB2 subunit, a hallmark amino acid linked to mammalian adaptation. Our findings support the ability of the avian influenza virus of the 2.3.4.4b clade to infect and transmit among terrestrial mammals with high pathogenicity and undergo rapid adaptive changes. It also highlights the coatis' ability to develop immunity and naturally clear the infection.