Influence of postruminal casein infusion and exogenous glucagon-like peptide 2 administration on the jejunal mucosal transcriptome in cattle.

We previously demonstrated that postruminal casein infusion and exogenous glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) administration independently stimulated growth and carbohydrase activity of the pancreas and jejunal mucosa in cattle. The objective of the current study was to profile the jejunal mucosal transcriptome of cattle using next-generation RNA sequencing in response to postruminal casein infusion and exogenous GLP-2. Twenty-four Holstein steers [250 ± 23.1 kg body weight (BW)] received a continuous abomasal infusion of 3.94 g raw corn starch/kg of BW combined with either 0 or 1.30 g casein/kg of BW for 7 d. Steers received subcutaneous injections at 0800 and 2000 h to provide either 0 or 100 µg GLP-2/kg of BW per day. At the end of the 7-d treatment period, steers were slaughtered for collection of the jejunal mucosa. Total RNA was extracted from jejunal mucosal tissue, strand-specific cDNA libraries were prepared, and RNA sequencing was conducted to generate 150-bp paired-end reads at a depth of 40 M reads per sample. Differentially expressed genes (DEG), KEGG pathway enrichment, and gene ontology enrichment were determined based on the FDR-corrected P-value (padj). Exogenous GLP-2 administration upregulated (padj < 0.05) 667 genes and downregulated 1,101 genes of the jejunal mucosa. Sphingolipid metabolism, bile secretion, adherens junction, and galactose metabolism were among the top KEGG pathways enriched with upregulated DEG (padj < 0.05) in response to exogenous GLP-2 administration. The top gene ontologies enriched with upregulated DEG (padj < 0.05) in response to exogenous GLP-2 administration included nutrient metabolic processes, brush border and bicellular tight junction assembly, and enzyme and transporter activities. Exogenous GLP-2 administration increased or tended to increase (padj < 0.10) brush border carbohydrase (MGAM, LCT, TREH), hexose transporter (SLC5A1, SLC2A2), and associated transcription factor (HNF1, GATA4, KAT2B) mRNA expression of the jejunal mucosa. Gene ontologies and KEGG pathways that were downregulated (padj < 0.05) in response to exogenous GLP-2 were related to genetic information processing. Postruminal casein infusion downregulated (padj < 0.05) 7 jejunal mucosal genes that collectively did not result in enriched KEGG pathways or gene ontologies. This study highlights some of the transcriptional mechanisms associated with increased growth, starch assimilation capacity, and barrier function of the jejunal mucosa in response to exogenous GLP-2 administration.

Current Status of Chronic Intestinal Failure Management in Adults.

BACKGROUND: Chronic intestinal failure (CIF) is a heterogeneous disease that affects pediatric and adult populations worldwide and requires complex multidisciplinary management. In recent years, many advances in intravenous supplementation support, surgical techniques, pharmacological management, and intestinal transplants have been published. Based on these advances, international societies have published multiple recommendations and guidelines for the management of these patients. The purpose of this paper is to show the differences that currently exist between the recommendations (ideal life) and the experiences published by different programs around the world. METHODS: A review of the literature in PubMed from 1980 to 2024 was carried out using the following terms: intestinal failure, CIF, home parenteral nutrition, short bowel syndrome, chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction, intestinal transplant, enterohormones, and glucagon-like peptide-2. CONCLUSIONS: There is a difference between what is recommended in the guidelines and consensus and what is applied in real life. Most of the world's countries are not able to offer all of the steps needed to treat this pathology. The development of cooperative networks between countries is necessary to ensure access to comprehensive treatment for most patients on all continents, but especially in low-income countries.

Intestinal adaptation and rehabilitation in adults with short bowel syndrome.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Over the past decade, trophic gastrointestinal hormonal factors have been included in the intestinal rehabilitation programs for short bowel syndrome (SBS). Up today the only trophic factor approved for clinical practice is the glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) analogue, teduglutide. A literature review on the last 2-year data on GLP-2 analogues for the treatment of SBS in adults has been performed. RECENT FINDINGS: Several reports on real-world data on the efficacy and safety of teduglutide treatment for SBS, some case-reports on the use of teduglutide in non-SBS conditions as well as phase 2 trials on new GL-2 analogues on patients with SBS have been retrieved. SUMMARY: Real-world data confirmed the teduglutide efficacy not only in weaning off IVS in accurately selected patients but also increased the alert on the risk of development of gastrointestinal polyps related to the drug; the impact of the therapy on patients' QoL deserves further studies and the cost-utility of the treatment is still uncertain. Some case reports highlighted the potential benefit of treatment with teduglutide in non-SBS gastrointestinal diseases, such as graft-versus-host disease, primary amyloidosis and refractory microscopic colitis. Phase 2 RCTs on safety and efficacy of two new long-acting GLP-2 analogues, glepaglutide and apraglutide, were published, and phase 3 RCTs have been completed.

Impaired Fat Absorption from Intestinal Tract in High-Fat Diet Fed Male Mice Deficient in Proglucagon-Derived Peptides.

(1) Background: Proglucagon-derived peptides (PDGPs) including glucagon (Gcg), GLP-1, and GLP-2 regulate lipid metabolism in the liver, adipocytes, and intestine. However, the mechanism by which PGDPs participate in alterations in lipid metabolism induced by high-fat diet (HFD) feeding has not been elucidated. (2) Methods: Mice deficient in PGDP (GCGKO) and control mice were fed HFD for 7 days and analyzed, and differences in lipid metabolism in the liver, adipose tissue, and duodenum were investigated. (3) Results: GCGKO mice under HFD showed lower expression levels of the genes involved in free fatty acid (FFA) oxidation such as Hsl, Atgl, Cpt1a, Acox1 (p < 0.05), and Pparα (p = 0.05) mRNA in the liver than in control mice, and both FFA and triglycerides content in liver and adipose tissue weight were lower in the GCGKO mice. On the other hand, phosphorylation of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in white adipose tissue did not differ between the two groups. GCGKO mice under HFD exhibited lower expression levels of Pparα and Cd36 mRNA in the duodenum as well as increased fecal cholesterol contents compared to HFD-controls. (4) Conclusions: GCGKO mice fed HFD exhibit a lesser increase in hepatic FFA and triglyceride contents and adipose tissue weight, despite reduced ß-oxidation in the liver, than in control mice. Thus, the absence of PGDP prevents dietary-induced fatty liver development due to decreased lipid uptake in the intestinal tract.

Evaluation of the relationship between plasma glucagon-like peptide-2 and gastrointestinal dysbiosis in canine chronic enteropathies.

Chronic enteropathies are a common cause of morbidity in dogs and are associated with disruption of the normal gastrointestinal mucosal barrier. The objective of this prospective study was to determine the association between measures of gastrointestinal dysbiosis and plasma concentrations of glucagon-like peptide-2, a hormone responsible for normal mucosal structure, in dogs with chronic enteropathies. Fecal 16S V4 rRNA gene sequencing and quantitative PCR via the dysbiosis index was performed on 16 healthy controls and 18 dogs with chronic enteropathy prior to and 1 month after initiation of individualized therapy. Fasting and post-prandial plasma GLP-2 concentrations were measured via ELISA in healthy dogs and chronic enteropathy dogs at both time points. Alpha and beta diversity indices, as well as bacterial population abundances were compared between groups and time-points. Principal component analysis combined with least squares regression was used to identify taxa contributing to glucagon-like peptide-2 variance among groups. While the dysbiosis index did not differ between healthy dogs and dogs with chronic enteropathy, 16S V4 genomic sequencing identified 47 operational taxonomic units that differed between the groups, all but 2 of which resolved following chronic enteropathy treatment. Principal component analysis identified 6 families and 19 genera that contributed to differences in glucagon-like peptide-2 concentrations between groups. Dysbiosis associated with chronic enteropathies in dogs may contribute to the observed lower plasma glucagon-like peptide-2 concentrations. Further research into mechanisms of microbiota impact on the enteroendocrine system is needed. Association between glucagon-like peptide-2 secretion and microbiome indices may help to guide research into future treatment strategies for dogs with chronic enteropathy.

Gut hormones and bone homeostasis: potential therapeutic implications.

Bone resorption follows a circadian rhythm, with a marked reduction in circulating markers of resorption (such as carboxy-terminal telopeptide region of collagen type I in serum) in the postprandial period. Several gut hormones, including glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) and GLP2, have been linked to this effect in humans and rodent models. These hormones are secreted from enteroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract in response to a variety of stimuli and effect a wide range of physiological processes within and outside the gut. Single GLP1, dual GLP1-GIP or GLP1-glucagon and triple GLP1-GIP-glucagon receptor agonists have been developed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. In addition, single GIP, GLP1 and GLP2 analogues have been investigated in preclinical studies as novel therapeutics to improve bone strength in bone fragility disorders. Dual GIP-GLP2 analogues have been developed that show therapeutic promise for bone fragility in preclinical studies and seem to exert considerable activity at the bone material level. This Review summarizes the evidence of the action of gut hormones on bone homeostasis and physiology.

Using LanM Enzymes to Modify Glucagon-Like Peptides 1 and 2 in E.coli.

Selective modification of peptides is often exploited to improve pharmaceutically relevant properties of bioactive peptides like stability, circulation time, and potency. In Nature, natural products belonging to the class of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are known to install a number of highly attractive modifications with high selectivity. These modifications are installed by enzymes guided to the peptide by corresponding leader peptides that are removed as the last step of biosynthesis. Here, we exploit leader peptides and their matching enzymes to investigate the installation of D-Ala post-translationally in a critical position in the hormones, glucagon-like peptides (GLP) 1 and 2. We also offer insight into how precursor peptide design can modulate the modification pattern achieved.

GLP-2 ameliorates D-galactose induced muscle aging by IGF-1/Pi3k/Akt/FoxO3a signaling pathway in C2C12 cells and mice.

BACKGROUND: The study aimed to investigate the effect of Glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) on muscle aging in vivo and in vitro. METHODS: Six-week-old C57BL/6J mice were administered with D-galactose (200 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneally) for 8weeks, followed by daily subcutaneous injections of GLP-2 (300 or 600 µg/kg/day) for 4weeks. Skeletal muscle function and mass were evaluated using relative grip strength and muscle weight. The sizes and types of muscle fibers and apoptosis were assessed through histological analysis, immunofluorescence staining, and TUNEL staining, respectively. C2C12 myotubes were treated with D-galactose (40 mg/mL) and GLP-2. Protein expression of differentiation-related myogenic differentiation factor D (MyoD), myogenin (MyoG), and myosin heavy chain (Myhc), degradation-related Muscle RING finger 1 (MuRF-1), and muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx)/Atrogin-1, and apoptosis-related B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bax, were assessed using western blots. The Pi3k inhibitor LY294002 was applied to investigate whether GLP-2 regulated myogenesis and myotube aging via IGF-1/Pi3k/Akt/FoxO3a signaling pathway. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that GLP-2 significantly reversed the decline in muscles weight, relative grip strength, diameter, and cross-sectional area of muscle fibers induced by D-galactose in mice. Apart from suppressing the expressions of MuRF-1 and Atrogin-1 in the muscles and C2C12 myotubes, GLP-2 significantly increased the expressions of MyoD, MyoG, and Myhc compared to the D-galactose. GLP-2 significantly suppressed cell apoptosis. Western blot analysis indicated that the regulation of GLP-2 may be attributed to the activation of theIGF-1/Pi3k/Akt/FoxO3a phosphorylation pathway. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggested that GLP-2 ameliorated D-galactose induced muscle aging by IGF-1/Pi3k/Akt/FoxO3a pathway.

Obesity and polycystic ovary syndrome influence on intestinal permeability at fasting, and modify the effect of diverse macronutrients on the gut barrier.

Women with the extremely prevalent polycystic ovary syndromegather multiple cardiovascular risk factors and chronic subclinical inflammation. Interactions between diet, adiposity, and gut microbiota modulate intestinal permeabilityand bacterial product translocation, and may contribute to the chronic inflammation process associated with the polycystic ovary syndrome. In the present study, we aimed to address the effects of obesity, functional hyperandrogenism, and diverse oral macronutrients on intestinal permeabilityby measuring circulating markers of gut barrier dysfunction and endotoxemia. Participants included 17 non-hyperandrogenic control women, 17 women with polycystic ovary syndrome, and 19 men that were submitted to glucose, lipid, and protein oral loads. Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, plasma soluble CD14, succinate, zonulin family peptide, and glucagon-like peptide-2 were determined at fasting and after oral challenges. Macronutrient challenges induced diverse changes on circulating intestinal permeabilitybiomarkers in the acute postprancial period, with lipids and proteins showing the most unfavorable and favorable effects, respectively. Particularly, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, zonulin family peptide, and glucagon-like peptide-2 responses were deregulated by the presence of obesity after glucose and lipid challenges. Obese subjects showed higher fasting intestinal permeabilitybiomarkers levels than non-obese individuals, except for plasma soluble CD14. The polycystic ovary syndromeexacerbated the effect of obesity further increasing fasting glucagon-like peptide-2, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, and succinate concentrations. We observed specific interactions of the polycystic ovary syndromewith obesity in the postprandial response of succinate, zonulin family peptide, and glucagon-like peptide-2. In summary, obesity and polycystic ovary syndromemodify the effect of diverse macronutrients on the gut barrier, and alsoinfluence intestinal permeabilityat fasting,contributing to the morbidity of functional hyperandrogenism by inducing endotoxemia and subclinical chronic inflammation.

Targeting the GLP-2 receptor in the management of obesity.

Recent advancements in understanding glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) biology and pharmacology have sparked interest in targeting the GLP-2 receptor (GLP-2R) in the treatment of obesity. GLP-2 is a proglucagon-derived 33-amino acid peptide co-secreted from enteroendocrine L cells along with glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and has a range of actions via the GLP-2R, which is particularly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract, the liver, adipose tissue, and the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, GLP-2 evidently induces intestinotrophic effects (i.e., induction of intestinal mucosal proliferation and improved gut barrier function) and promotes mesenteric blood flow. However, GLP-2 does not seem to have appetite or food intake-reducing effects in humans, but its gut barrier-promoting effect may be of interest in the context of obesity. Obesity is associated with reduced gut barrier function, increasing the translocation of proinflammatory gut content to the circulation. This phenomenon constitutes a strong driver of obesity-associated systemic low-grade inflammation, which in turn plays a major role in the development of most obesity-associated complications. Thus, the intestinotrophic and gut barrier-improving effect of GLP-2, which in obese rodent models shows strong anti-inflammatory potential, may, in combination with food intake-reducing strategies, e.g., GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1) agonism, be able to rectify core pathophysiological mechanism of obesity. Here, we provide an overview of GLP-2 physiology in the context of obesity pathophysiology and review the pharmacological potential of GLP-2R activation in the management of obesity and related comorbidities.

Efficacy and safety of glucagon-like peptide 2 in patients with short bowel syndrome: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) is a highly conserved enteroendocrine hormone that seems to be a regulator promoting intestinal adaptation. This study aimed to summarize the evidence on the efficacy and safety of exogenous GLP-2 in patients with short bowel syndrome (SBS). METHODS: A database search was performed on PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, Ovid, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials in November 2022. Clinical trials on the effect of GLP-2 on patients with SBS were included. The Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 and Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies - of Interventions tools for quality assessment of randomized and nonrandomized trials were used. The extracted data were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively using a network meta-analysis model. RESULTS: This study included 23 clinical trials with 843 patients. The patients' ages ranged from 4.0 to 62.4 years. The treatment doses were 0.1, 0.05, and 0.025 mg/kg/day for teduglutide; 5 and 10 mg/week for apraglutide, and 0.1, 1, and 10 mg/day for glepaglutide. The treatment duration ranged from 1 to 32 weeks. Regarding citrulline level, 0.1 mg/kg/day of teduglutide had the highest mean difference (MD; 14.77; 95% CI, 10.20-19.33), followed by 0.05 mg/kg/day (13.04; 95% CI, 9.79-16.2) and 0.025 mg/kg/day (7.84; 95% CI, 2.42-13.26) of teduglutide. In addition, the effect estimate showed significant differences between all teduglutide dose groups and the control group. Different doses of glepaglutide were analyzed to assess the effect on alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels, in which 0.1 mg/day of glepaglutide showed a significantly higher MD (20.71; 95% CI, 2.62-38.80) than 1 mg/day (the reference) and 10 mg/day (8.45; 95% CI, -10.72 to 27.62) of glepaglutide. However, 0.1 vs 10 mg of glepaglutide has an MD of -14.57 (95% CI, -437.24 to 148.11) for the indirect estimate, whereas 10 mg of glepaglutide has an MD of 8.45 (95% CI, -10.72 to 27.62) for the network estimate. Regarding safety outcomes, there was no significant difference among all teduglutide and apraglutide dose groups compared with the control group. Catheter-related bloodstream infection was the most common adverse event reported with the use of apraglutide, teduglutide, and glepaglutide. CONCLUSION: Despite the small number of patients in the included studies and variable follow-up duration, GLP-2 seems to be safe and effective in patients with SBS. GLP-2 showed a positive effect on increasing plasma citrulline level and decreasing ALP level.

Incretins Beyond the Pancreas: Exploring the Impact of GIP and GLP-1/2 on Bone Remodeling.

Incretin hormones, such as glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 and 2 (GLP-1, 2), belong to the group of gastrointestinal hormones. Their actions occur through interaction with GIP and GLP-1/2 receptors, which are present in various target tissues. Apart from their well-established roles in pancreatic function and insulin regulation, incretins elicit significant effects that extend beyond the pancreas. Specifically, these hormones stimulate osteoblast differentiation and inhibit osteoclast activity, thereby promoting bone anabolism. Moreover, they play a pivotal role in bone mineralization and overall bone quality and function, making them potentially therapeutic for managing bone health. Thus, this review provides a summary of the crucial involvement of incretins in bone metabolism, influencing both bone formation and resorption processes. While existing evidence is persuasive, further studies are necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the therapeutic potential of incretins in modifying bone health.

Pharmacokinetics and Tolerability of a Single Dose of Apraglutide, a Novel, Long-Acting, Synthetic glucagon-like peptide-2 Analog With a Unique Pharmacologic Profile, in Individuals With Impaired Renal Function.

Renal impairment is a common complication in patients with short bowel syndrome with intestinal failure (SBS-IF). Glucagon-like peptide-2 analogs, such as apraglutide, have been developed as a treatment option for SBS-IF. This study assessed the potential for apraglutide overexposure in individuals with severely impaired renal function versus healthy volunteers with normal renal function. In this phase 1, open-label, multicenter, nonrandomized, parallel-group study, a single dose of apraglutide 5 mg was administered subcutaneously to individuals with severely impaired renal function (<30 mL/min/1.73 m2) and healthy volunteers with normal renal function (≥90 mL/min/1.73 m2). Primary pharmacokinetic endpoints were maximum observed concentration (Cmax) and exposure to apraglutide (area under the curve [AUC] from time 0 to infinity [AUCinf], and AUC from time 0 to the last quantifiable concentration [AUClast]). Each group comprised 8 individuals. Results show that patients with severe renal impairment do not have increased apraglutide exposure. Apraglutide achieved a lower Cmax and AUCinf in individuals with severe renal impairment versus those with normal renal function (Cmax = 36.9 vs 59.5 ng/L; AUCinf = 3100 vs 4470 h · ng/mL, respectively). The respective geometric mean ratios were 0.620 and 0.693 for Cmax and AUCinf, and the upper bound of their 90% confidence intervals were <2, indicating patients with severe renal impairment were not overexposed to apraglutide versus those with normal renal function. Adverse events were mild or moderate in severity. Apraglutide does not require dose reduction for any degree of renal impairment and could be used in a broader patient population of renally impaired patients without dose adjustment.

Use of Teduglutide in the Management of Gastrointestinal Graft-versus-Host Disease in Children and Young Adults.

Loss of intestinal L cells and reduced levels of glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) have been implicated in acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) in murine models. Teduglutide, a human recombinant GLP-2 analog, may be beneficial in acute gastrointestinal (GI) GVHD owing to its known tissue protective and regenerative functions. We retrospectively reviewed patients who received teduglutide for treatment of GI GVHD. Endoscopy was performed at diagnosis and at completion of the teduglutide course. GLP-1 immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed at diagnosis and the end of teduglutide therapy in 2 patients to evaluate L cells. We initiated daily teduglutide 0.05 mg/kg subcutaneously as adjunctive therapy in 3 pediatric patients with refractory GI GVHD. All 3 patients had resolution of GI GVHD following completion of the teduglutide course, as evidenced by reduced apoptosis and regenerative changes on post-treatment endoscopy. Reportable GLP-1 IHC in 2 patients demonstrated increased L cells at the end of teduglutide treatment compared to at diagnosis. No adverse effects to teduglutide were observed. Teduglutide is a promising adjunctive and non-immune suppressive agent for managing acute GI GVHD.

Glucagon-like Peptide-2 Depresses Ileal Contractility in Preparations from Mice through Opposite Modulatory Effects on Nitrergic and Cholinergic Neurotransmission.

Glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) has been reported to influence gastrointestinal motor responses, exerting a modulatory role on enteric neurotransmission. To our knowledge, no data on GLP-2 effects on the motility of the isolated ileum are available; therefore, we investigated whether GLP-2 affects the contractile activity of mouse ileal preparations and the neurotransmitters engaged. Ileal preparations showed tetrodotoxin (TTX)- and atropine-insensitive spontaneous contractile activity, which was unaffected by the nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor, L-NNA. GLP-2 depressed the spontaneous contractility, an effect that was abolished by TTX or L-NNA and not influenced by atropine. Electrical field stimulation induced TTX- and atropine-sensitive contractile responses, which were reduced in amplitude by GLP-2 even in the presence of L-NNA. Immunohistochemical results showed a significant increase in nNOS-positive fibers in the ileal muscle wall and a significant decrease in ChAT-positive myenteric neurons in GLP-2-exposed preparations. The present results offer the first evidence that GLP-2 acts on ileal preparations. The hormone appears to depress ileal contractility through a dual opposite modulatory effect on inhibitory nitrergic and excitatory cholinergic neurotransmission. From a physiological point of view, it could be hypothesized that GLP-2 inhibitory actions on ileal contractility can increase transit time, facilitating nutrient absorption.

Effects of Exogenous GIP and GLP-2 on Bone Turnover in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes.

CONTEXT: Individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) have an increased risk of bone fractures despite normal or increased bone mineral density. The underlying causes are not well understood but may include disturbances in the gut-bone axis, in which both glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) are regulators of bone turnover. Thus, in healthy fasting participants, both exogenous GIP and GLP-2 acutely reduce bone resorption. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the acute effects of subcutaneously administered GIP and GLP-2 on bone turnover in individuals with T2D. METHODS: We included 10 men with T2D. Participants met fasting in the morning on 3 separate test days and were injected subcutaneously with GIP, GLP-2, or placebo in a randomized crossover design. Blood samples were drawn at baseline and regularly after injections. Bone turnover was estimated by circulating levels of collagen type 1 C-terminal telopeptide (CTX), procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP), sclerostin, and PTH. RESULTS: GIP and GLP-2 significantly reduced CTX to (mean ± SEM) 66 ± 7.8% and 74 ± 5.9% of baseline, respectively, compared with after placebo (P = .001). In addition, P1NP and sclerostin increased acutely after GIP whereas a decrease in P1NP was seen after GLP-2. PTH levels decreased to 67 ± 2.5% of baseline after GLP-2 and to only 86 ± 3.4% after GIP. CONCLUSION: Subcutaneous GIP and GLP-2 affect CTX and P1NP in individuals with T2D to the same extent as previously demonstrated in healthy individuals.

Low dietary carbohydrate induces structural alterations in enterocytes of the chicken ileum.

We investigated the role of dietary carbohydrates in the maintenance of the enterocyte microvillar structure in the chicken ileum. Male chickens were divided into the control and three experimental groups, and the experimental groups were fed diets containing 50%, 25%, and 0% carbohydrates of the control diet. The structural alterations in enterocytes were examined using transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescent techniques for ß-actin and villin. Glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-2 and proglucagon mRNA were detected by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, respectively. Fragmentation and wide gap spaces were frequently observed in the microvilli of the 25% and 0% groups. The length, width, and density of microvilli were also decreased in the experimental groups. The experimental groups had shorter terminal web extensions, and there were substantial changes in the mitochondrial density between the control and experimental groups. Intensities of ß-actin and villin immunofluorescence observed on the apical surface of enterocytes were lower in the 0% group. The frequency of GLP-2-immunoreactive and proglucagon mRNA-expressing cells decreased with declining dietary carbohydrate levels. This study revealed that dietary carbohydrates contribute to the structural maintenance of enterocyte microvilli in the chicken ileum. The data from immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization assays suggest the participation of GLP-2 in this maintenance system.

Associations between feeding and glucagon-like peptide-2 in healthy ponies.

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal peptides, such as glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2), could play a direct role in the development of equine hyperinsulinaemia. OBJECTIVES: To describe the secretory pattern of endogenous GLP-2 over 24 h in healthy ponies and determine whether oral administration of a synthetic GLP-2 peptide increases blood glucose or insulin responses to feeding. STUDY DESIGN: A cohort study followed by a randomised, controlled, cross-over study. METHODS: In the cohort study, blood samples were collected every 2 h for 24 h in seven healthy ponies and plasma [GLP-2] was measured. In the cross-over study, 75 µg/kg bodyweight of synthetic GLP-2, or carrier only, was orally administered to 10 ponies twice daily for 10 days. The area under the curve (AUC0-3h ) of post-prandial blood glucose and insulin were determined before and after each treatment. RESULTS: Endogenous [GLP-2] ranged from <0.55 to 1.95 ± 0.29 [CI 0.27] ng/mL with similar peak concentrations in response to meals containing 88-180 g of non-structural carbohydrate, that were ~4-fold higher (P < 0.001) than the overnight nadir. After GLP-2 treatment peak plasma [GLP-2] increased from 1.1 [0.63-1.37] ng/mL to 1.54 [1.1-2.31] ng/mL (28.6%; P = 0.002), and AUC0-3h was larger (P = 0.01) than before treatment. The peptide decreased (7%; P = 0.003) peak blood glucose responses to feeding from 5.33 ± 0.45 mmol/L to 5.0 ± 0.21 mmol/L, but not AUC0-3h (P = 0.07). There was no effect on insulin secretion. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The study only included healthy ponies and administration of a single dose of GLP-2. CONCLUSIONS: The diurnal pattern of GLP-2 secretion in ponies was similar to other species with no apparent effect of daylight. Although GLP-2 treatment did not increase post-prandial glucose or insulin responses to eating, studies using alternative dosing strategies for GLP-2 are required.