Sexual Abuse and Sexually-Transmitted HIV/AIDS in Jamaican Children and Adolescents Aged 6-19 Years.

INTRODUCTION: Risk factors and outcomes of sexually-acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection were characterized in Jamaican children and adolescents. METHODOLOGY: Management was carried out by multidisciplinary teams in Infectious Diseases clinics during August 2003 through February 2019 using modified World Health Organization HIV criteria. RESULTS: There were 78 clients, aged 6 to 19 years, with females:males = 4:1 (p < 0.05). Sexual-initiation occurred in 60%, 47 before < 16 years (median 13 years, with four < 10 years; females:males = 7:1). Sexual-initiation preceded HIV diagnosis in all cases (median 2 years). Secondary education 93% (69/77) and living with non-parental relatives 17% (13/78) were associated with early sexual-initiation (p < 0.042); as was later imprisonment in 6% (3/52). Other sexually transmitted infections 36% (19/53) were associated with sexual-initiation ≥ 16 years (p < 0.01). Risks for ongoing HIV-transmission included infrequent condom use 74% (39/53), body-piercings 50% (24/48), illicit drug use 37% (28/76), tattoos 36% (19/52), transactional sex 14% (7/53) and pregnancy 56% of girls. 77% (59/77) had Centres for Diseases Control's Category A HIV infection; 82% (61/75) initiated anti-retroviral therapy; 75% (56/75) had first-line drugs, with helper T lymphocyte counts ≥ 500 cells/µL in 61% (48/78) and HIV viral load of < 1,000 copies/µL in 63% (40/64). Complications included dermatological 39% (20/52), respiratory 25% (13/52) and neurological 15% (8/52). Early sexual initiation was associated with depression 43% (33/76; p < 0.004) and suicidal attempt or ideation 23% (18/77; p < 0.096). Four (5%) died. CONCLUSIONS: Sexually transmitted HIV/AIDS in children and adolescents should preempt prompt medical, legal and psychosocial interventions.

A "Drug-Dependent" Immune System Can Compromise Protection against Infection: The Relationships between Psychostimulants and HIV.

Psychostimulant use is a major comorbidity in people living with HIV, which was initially explained by them adopting risky behaviors that facilitate HIV transmission. However, the effects of drug use on the immune system might also influence this phenomenon. Psychostimulants act on peripheral immune cells even before they reach the central nervous system (CNS) and their effects on immunity are likely to influence HIV infection. Beyond their canonical activities, classic neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are expressed by peripheral immune cells (e.g., dopamine and enkephalins), which display immunomodulatory properties and could be influenced by psychostimulants. Immune receptors, like Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on microglia, are modulated by cocaine and amphetamine exposure. Since peripheral immunocytes also express TLRs, they may be similarly affected by psychostimulants. In this review, we will summarize how psychostimulants are currently thought to influence peripheral immunity, mainly focusing on catecholamines, enkephalins and TLR4, and shed light on how these drugs might affect HIV infection. We will try to shift from the classic CNS perspective and adopt a more holistic view, addressing the potential impact of psychostimulants on the peripheral immune system and how their systemic effects could influence HIV infection.

Social inequalities, sexual tourism and HIV in Cartagena, Colombia: an ethnographic study.

BACKGROUND: Cartagena, Colombia's main port on the Caribbean Coast, reported an HIV incidence of 7.5 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2007 with 90.0% transmission by heterosexual contact and 70 identified as women with a stable partner. Studies across Colombia illustrate that HIV infection relates to social inequalities; most people with HIV live in poverty and have minimal access to health care, education, and secure jobs. The purpose of this article is to analyse the relationship between social inequalities, sexual tourism and HIV infection in Cartagena, Colombia. METHODS: Data come from a five-year participatory ethnography of HIV in Cartagena in the period 2004-2009, in which 96 citizens (30 of whom were living with HIV) participated in different data collection phases. Techniques included participant observation, in-depth interviews and thematic life histories. Out of this material, we selected three life histories of two women and a man living with HIV that are representative of the ways in which participants expressed how social inequalities make it virtually impossible to engage in safe sex practices. RESULTS: At stake is the exchange of condomless sex for goods within the widespread sexual tourism networks that promote an idealisation of dark-skinned men and women as better sexual performers. Our results illustrate the complex interplay of social inequalities based on class, skin colour, gender and sexual orientation. Furthermore, they suggest a synergistic effect between poverty, racialization, and gender inequalities in the historical maintenance of social dynamics for a fruitful growth of a sexual tourism industry that in turn increases vulnerability to HIV infection. CONCLUSIONS: Although the convergence of social inequalities has been thoroughly reported in the literature on social studies of HIV vulnerability; distinctive dynamics are occurring in Cartagena, including a clear link between the contemporary globalised sexual tourism industries and a racialised social structure - both having historical roots in the colonial past-.

The impact of bone marrow stromal antigen-2 (BST2) gene variants on HIV-1 control in black South African individuals.

Bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 (BST2 or tetherin) is a host-encoded, interferon-inducible antiviral restriction factor which blocks the release of enveloped viruses. Few studies have assessed the role of BST2 polymorphisms on HIV-1 acquisition or disease progression in sub-Saharan Africa. This study investigated the frequency of four HIV-1-associated BST2 variants rs3217318, rs12609479, rs10415893 and rs113189798 in uninfected and HIV-1 infected black South Africans. Homozygosity for the rs12609479-A minor allele, previously associated with decreased HIV-1 acquisition risk, was underrepresented in HIV-1 uninfected black South Africans (2%) compared to reference African (9%) and in particular European populations (61%) (p = .047 and p < .0001, respectively). To determine if any of these gene variants influenced HIV-1 control in the absence of antiretroviral treatment (ART), we compared HIV-1 infected ART-naïve progressors [n = 72] and controllers [n = 71], the latter includes elite controllers [EC: n = 23; VL < 50 RNA copies/ml]. Heterozygosity for the rs12609479 SNP (G/A) was enriched in progressors compared to ECs (47.2% vs 21.7%, OR = 3.50 [1.16-10.59], p = .03), while rs113189798 heterozygosity (A/G) showed a strong trend of overrepresentation in ECs compared to progressors (47.8% vs 26.4%, OR = 0.39 [0.14-1.04], p = .07). Heterozygosity for the promoter indel rs3217318 (i19/Δ19) was associated with a faster rate of CD4+ T-cell decline in progressors (p = .0134). Carriage of the rs3217318 (i19/Δ19), rs12609479 (G/G), rs10415893(G/A) and rs113189798 (A/G) combined genotype, denoted as i19Δ19 GG GA AG, was associated with significantly higher CD4+ T-cell counts in progressors (p = .03), a finding predominantly driven by the _GG_AG combination. Our data suggest that the possession of select BST2 genotype combinations may be implicated in HIV-1 disease progression and natural spontaneous control.

Global systematic review and ecological analysis of HIV in people who inject drugs: National population sizes and factors associated with HIV prevalence.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs (PWID) are at elevated risk of HIV infection. Data on population sizes of PWID living with HIV are needed to inform the implementation of prevention, treatment and care programs. We estimated national population sizes of people who recently (past 12 months) injected drugs living with HIV and evaluated ecological associations with HIV prevalence in PWID. METHODS: We used national data on the prevalence of injecting drug use and of HIV among PWID, derived from systematic reviews, to estimate national population sizes of PWID living with HIV. Uncertainty was estimated using Monte Carlo simulation with 100,000 draws. We extracted data on sample characteristics from studies of HIV prevalence among PWID, and identified national indicators that have been observed or hypothesised to be associated with HIV prevalence in PWID. We used linear regression to evaluate associations between these variables and HIV prevalence in PWID. RESULTS: Four countries comprised 55% of the estimated global population of PWID living with HIV: Russia (572,500; 95% uncertainty interval (UI) 235,500-1,036,500); Brazil (462,000; 95% UI 283,500-674,500); China (316,500; 95% UI 171,500-493,500), and the United States (195,500; 95% UI 80,000-343,000). Greater anti-HCV prevalence and national income inequality were associated with greater HIV prevalence in PWID. CONCLUSION: The countries with the largest populations of PWID living with HIV will need to dramatically scale up prevention, treatment and care interventions to prevent further increases in population size. The association between anti-HCV prevalence and HIV prevalence among PWID corroborates findings that settings with increasing HCV should implement effective interventions to prevent HIV outbreaks. The association between income inequality and HIV among PWID reinforces the need to implement structural interventions alongside targeted individual-level strategies.

Methamphetamine Use and Sexual Risk Behaviors among Men Who Have Sex With Men in a Mexico-US Border City.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Methamphetamine (meth) use and its related risk behaviors for HIV among men who have sex with men (MSM) are a public health concern across the Mexico-US border. This study aims to contribute to the limited literature of meth use and sexual risk behaviors among Latino MSM on the Mexico-US border. METHODS: Data were drawn from the Meth Pilot Study (2014-2015) among men who use meth (n = 100). Descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis comparing MSM to non-MSM were conducted using Pearson's χ2 test, Fisher's exact tests, and Mann-Whitney U test; all tests were conducted using SPSS v.25. RESULTS: Most participants obtained meth in El Paso, Texas (87.2%), used meth orally (65.2%) or smoked (78.3%), and the most common reason for initiation was curiosity. Significant differences (P < .05) in meth use behaviors and sexual risk behaviors between MSM and non-MSM who used meth included: median number of sex partners (7 vs 3), being penetrated anally by last sexual partner (31.6% vs 1.4%), and engaging in transactional sex ever (63.2% vs 9.6%) and past 12 months (52.6% vs 6.8%). Finally, rates of HIV positivity were higher among MSM than non-MSM (10.5% vs 1.4%). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Among men who use meth, MSM are engaging in higher HIV risk behaviors compared with non-MSM. Understanding these risks could help identify candidates for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and evidence-based substance use disorder treatment options. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: This study reveals that Latino MSM who use meth is a high-risk group for HIV and a need for tailored interventions. (Am J Addict 2020;29:111-119).

Assessing Sexually Transmitted Infections and HIV Risk Among Transgender Women in Lima, Peru: Beyond Behavior.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore risk factors for HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among transgender women (TW) in Lima, Peru. Methods: HIV-negative or serostatus unknown TW reporting recent condomless receptive anal intercourse underwent testing for STIs and HIV and completed a sociobehavioral survey. Results: Among 120 TW, 29.6% had rectal Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) or Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and 12.6% had HIV. Age and migrant status were associated with rectal GC/CT, and rectal GC/CT predicted HIV infection. Conclusions: Further study is needed to understand individual and social factors that contribute to HIV/STI vulnerability among TW.

A portrait of risk behavior towards HIV infection among Brazilian Army conscripts by geographic regions, 2016.

INTRODUCTION: Knowledge about risky sexual behavior among young people has been widely acknowledged as a key tool to controlling the spread of HIV. This article aimed at presenting the risk behavior of Brazilian Army conscripts toward HIV infection according to the country's geographic regions. . METHOD: We collected data from 37,282 conscripts, aged 17 to 22, during enlistment in the Brazilian Army in 2016. The prevalence of HIV infection, both self-reported and measured through laboratory results, and risk behavior factors were estimated by region. RESULTS: 75% of the sample of conscripts reported to have already started sexual activity, and the average age of their sexual initiation was 15. Condom use varied according to the type of sexual relationship, being lower among steady partners and greater among less stable relationships. HIV prevalence assessed by laboratory tests was 0.12% across the country and the highest prevalence was observed in the North region (0.24%). Alcohol and illicit drug usage was higher in the South region. DISCUSSION: The study allowed the observation of risk behavior monitoring for HIV infection among young Brazilians. Lower condom usage among steady partners may be contributing to an increase in the number of HIV-infected individuals. CONCLUSION: Results suggest the need to intensify prevention campaigns to disseminate safe sex practices among young people, in addition to the expansion of testing offer to this population.

Fascitis necrotizante en puérpera de once días / Necrotizing Fasciitis in Eleven-Day Postpartum

Introducción: La fascitis necrotizante es una infección progresiva poco común, con alta letalidad que puede afectar a cualquier parte del cuerpo, pero es más frecuente en las extremidades, en especial en las piernas, causada en su mayoría por una infección polimicrobiana y se caracteriza por afectar la fascia superficial, tejido subcutáneo, grasa subcutánea con nervios, arterias, venas y fascia profunda. Objetivo: Reportar el caso de una puérpera diagnosticada de fascitis necrotizante. Presentación de caso: Puérpera de 28 años de edad con antecedentes de obesidad e infección por VIH, ingresada en el Servicio de Obstetricia en un hospital de la República Sudafricana, por presentar fiebre, escalofríos y dolor en el abdomen. Se utilizó tratamiento endovenoso con antibióticos y tratamiento quirúrgico. Resultados: Evolución satisfactoria de la paciente sin secuelas. Conclusiones: El diagnóstico oportuno de esta patología permite un accionar temprano, con la consecuente sobrevida de los pacientes(AU)

Introduction: Necrotizing fasciitis is a very lethal uncommon progressive infection that can affect any part of the body, however it is more frequent in the limbs, especially the legs, caused mostly by a polymicrobial infection. It affects the superficial fascia, subcutaneous tissue, subcutaneous fat with nerves, arteries, veins and deep fascia. Objective: To report the case of a puerpera diagnosed with necrotizing fasciitis. Case presentation: A 28-year-old woman with a history of obesity and HIV infection, was admitted to the Obstetrics Service at a hospital in the Republic of South Africa. She had fever, chills and pain in the abdomen. Intravenous treatment with antibiotics and surgical treatment was used. Results: Satisfactory evolution of the patient with no sequelae. Conclusions: The opportune diagnosis of this pathology allows acting early, with the consequent survival of the patients(AU)

Stigma and discrimination related to gender identity and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among transgender women: a systematic review. / Estigma e discriminação relacionados à identidade de gênero e à vulnerabilidade ao HIV/aids entre mulheres transgênero: revisão sistemática.

HIV prevalence among transgender women is disproportional when compared to the general population in various countries. Stigma and discrimination based on gender identity have frequently been associated with vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. The objective was to conduct a systematic literature review to analyze the relationship between stigma and discrimination related to gender identity in transgender women and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. This systematic literature review involved the stages of identification, compilation, analysis, and interpretation of results of studies found in five databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and LILACS. No publication time period was determined in advance for this review. The studies were assessed according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The review included articles in English, Portuguese, or Spanish that related stigma and discrimination to transgender women's vulnerability to HIV. We found 41 studies, mostly qualitative, published from 2004 to 2018, and categorized in three dimensions of stigma: individual, interpersonal, and structural. The data highlighted that the effects of stigma related to gender identity, such as violence, discrimination, and transphobia, are structuring elements in transgender women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. The studies showed a relationship between stigma and discrimination and transgender women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and indicated the need for public policies to fight discrimination in society.

A prevalência de HIV entre mulheres transgênero é desproporcional quando comparamos com a população geral em vários países. O estigma e a discriminação, por conta da identidade de gênero, têm sido comumente associados à vulnerabilidade ao HIV/aids. O objetivo foi realizar uma revisão sistemática da literatura para analisar a relação entre o estigma e a discriminação relacionados à identidade de gênero de mulheres transgênero e à vulnerabilidade ao HIV/aids. Revisão sistemática da literatura, que envolveu as etapas de identificação, fichamento, análise e interpretação de resultados de estudos valendo-se da seleção em cinco bases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct e LILACS. Não houve estabelecimento de período de tempo a priori para essa revisão. Os estudos foram avaliados de acordo com critérios de inclusão e exclusão. Foram incluídos artigos em inglês, português ou espanhol, que relacionavam o estigma e a discriminação com a vulnerabilidade de mulheres transgênero ao HIV. Foram encontrados 41 artigos, majoritariamente qualitativos, publicados no período entre 2004 e 2018, e categorizados em três dimensões do estigma: nível individual, interpessoal e estrutural. Os dados permitem destacar que os efeitos do estigma relacionado à identidade de gênero, como a violência, a discriminação e a transfobia, são elementos estruturantes no processo da vulnerabilidade da população de mulheres transgênero ao HIV/aids. Os trabalhos mostraram relação entre estigma e discriminação com a vulnerabilidade de mulheres transgênero ao HIV/aids e apontaram para a necessidade de políticas públicas que combatam a discriminação na sociedade.

La prevalencia de VIH entre mujeres transgénero es desproporcionada cuando la comparamos con la población general en varios países. El estigma y la discriminación, debido a la identidad de género, han sido comúnmente asociados a la vulnerabilidad al VIH/SIDA. El objetivo fue realizar una revisión sistemática de la literatura para analizar la relación entre el estigma y la discriminación, relacionados con la identidad de género de mujeres transgénero y su vulnerabilidad al VIH/SIDA. Se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura, que implicó etapas de identificación, registro, análisis e interpretación de resultados de estudios, a partir de una selección en cinco bases de datos: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct y LILACS. No se estableció un período de tiempo a priori para esta revisión. Los estudios se evaluaron según criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Se incluyeron artículos en inglés, portugués o español, que relacionaban el estigma y la discriminación con la vulnerabilidad de mujeres transgénero al VIH. Se encontraron 41 artículos, mayoritariamente cualitativos, publicados durante el período entre 2004 a 2018, y categorizados en tres dimensiones del estigma: nivel individual, interpersonal y estructural. Los datos permitieron destacar que los efectos del estigma, relacionado con la identidad de género, como la violencia, la discriminación y la transfobia, son elementos estructuradores en el proceso de la vulnerabilidad de la población de mujeres transgénero al VIH/SIDA. Los estudios mostraron una relación entre estigma y discriminación con la vulnerabilidad de mujeres transgénero al VIH/SIDA y señalan la necesidad de políticas públicas que combatan esta discriminación en la sociedad.

Violence and sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: To synthesize the knowledge produced in studies about the association between violence and STI during pregnancy. METHODS: In this systematic review, we conducted basic activities of identification, compilation, and registration of the trials. The instruments of data collection were studies that investigated, explicitly, relationships between violence, gestation, and STI, from July 2012 to July 2017, using PubMed, Cochrane Library, SciELO, and LILACS. RESULTS: In all, 26 articles were chosen to form the basis of the analysis of this study. The relationship between violence and STI was observed in 22 of the 26 studies, and in eight of them, the violence was practiced during the gestation period. In two studies, there was no evidence of this relationship. In one study, the lack of care for STI was attributed to the unpreparedness of health professionals. Mental disorders were cited as resulting from STI in three articles and in another as a result of violence. One study found more frequent violence against adolescents, while two others cited gestation as a protective factor. CONCLUSIONS: IPV combines characteristics that have a different expression when the woman is in the gestational period. The literature points to a relationship between IPV against women and the presence of STI. The monitoring of pregnancy, whether in the prenatal or postpartum period, offers unique opportunities for the health professional to identify situations of violence and thus provide assistance.

Violence and sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE: To synthesize the knowledge produced in studies about the association between violence and STI during pregnancy. METHODS: In this systematic review, we conducted basic activities of identification, compilation, and registration of the trials. The instruments of data collection were studies that investigated, explicitly, relationships between violence, gestation, and STI, from July 2012 to July 2017, using PubMed, Cochrane Library, SciELO, and LILACS. RESULTS: In all, 26 articles were chosen to form the basis of the analysis of this study. The relationship between violence and STI was observed in 22 of the 26 studies, and in eight of them, the violence was practiced during the gestation period. In two studies, there was no evidence of this relationship. In one study, the lack of care for STI was attributed to the unpreparedness of health professionals. Mental disorders were cited as resulting from STI in three articles and in another as a result of violence. One study found more frequent violence against adolescents, while two others cited gestation as a protective factor. CONCLUSIONS: IPV combines characteristics that have a different expression when the woman is in the gestational period. The literature points to a relationship between IPV against women and the presence of STI. The monitoring of pregnancy, whether in the prenatal or postpartum period, offers unique opportunities for the health professional to identify situations of violence and thus provide assistance.

RESUMO OBJETIVO: Sintetizar o conhecimento produzido em estudos sobre a associação entre violência e IST na gestação. MÉTODOS: Nesta revisão sistemática, envolvemos as atividades básicas de identificação, compilação e registro dos ensaios. Os instrumentos de coleta de dados foram os estudos que investigaram, explicitamente, as relações entre violência e gestação e IST, no período de julho de 2012 a julho de 2017, utilizando PubMed, Biblioteca Cochrane, SciELO e Lilacs. RESULTADOS: Ao todo, 26 artigos foram escolhidos para formar a base da análise deste estudo. A relação entre violência e IST foi observada em 22 dos 26 estudos, sendo que em oito deles a violência foi praticada durante o período de gestação. Em dois estudos, não houve evidências dessa relação. Em um estudo, a falta de cuidados com a IST foi atribuída ao despreparo dos profissionais de saúde. Transtornos mentais foram citados como resultantes de IST em três artigos e em outro como resultado de violência. Um estudo encontrou violência mais frequente contra adolescentes, enquanto outros dois citaram a gestação como um fator de proteção. CONCLUSÕES: A VPI combina características que possuem uma expressão diferenciada quando a mulher está no período gestacional. A literatura aponta para uma relação entre a VPI contra as mulheres e a presença de IST. O acompanhamento da gravidez, seja no pré-parto, seja no pós-parto, oferece oportunidades únicas para o profissional de saúde identificar situações de violência e, assim, prestar assistência.

Conflicting Views in Narratives on HIV Transmission via Medical Care.

Molecular studies suggest that HIV arose in Africa between 1880 and 1940. During this period, there were campaigns by European colonial governments that involved unsterile injections of large numbers of Africans. That, along with other unsafe therapeutic interventions, may have propelled the evolution of HIV from SIV. Since subtype B in Africa may have been concentrated in white African homosexuals, it is possible that Westerners rather than Haitians introduced the virus to the New World. Amplification of HIV subtype B took place in Haiti, where transmission was facilitated by hazardous medical procedures including plasmapheresis. Representations in the media, however, largely ignore Western contributions to the spread of AIDS. This article focuses on the value of alternative narratives in fostering a balanced view that is less stigmatizing on developing nations.

A portrait of risk behavior towards HIV infection among Brazilian Army conscripts by geographic regions, 2016 / Retrato do comportamento de risco dos conscritos do Exército brasileiro à infecção pelo HIV por macrorregiões brasileiras, 2016

ABSTRACT Introduction: Knowledge about risky sexual behavior among young people has been widely acknowledged as a key tool to controlling the spread of HIV. This article aimed at presenting the risk behavior of Brazilian Army conscripts toward HIV infection according to the country's geographic regions. . Method: We collected data from 37,282 conscripts, aged 17 to 22, during enlistment in the Brazilian Army in 2016. The prevalence of HIV infection, both self-reported and measured through laboratory results, and risk behavior factors were estimated by region. Results: 75% of the sample of conscripts reported to have already started sexual activity, and the average age of their sexual initiation was 15. Condom use varied according to the type of sexual relationship, being lower among steady partners and greater among less stable relationships. HIV prevalence assessed by laboratory tests was 0.12% across the country and the highest prevalence was observed in the North region (0.24%). Alcohol and illicit drug usage was higher in the South region. Discussion: The study allowed the observation of risk behavior monitoring for HIV infection among young Brazilians. Lower condom usage among steady partners may be contributing to an increase in the number of HIV-infected individuals. Conclusion: Results suggest the need to intensify prevention campaigns to disseminate safe sex practices among young people, in addition to the expansion of testing offer to this population.

RESUMO Introdução: O conhecimento do comportamento sexual de risco entre jovens tem sido amplamente reconhecido como ferramenta-chave para controlar a propagação do HIV. Este artigo tem o objetivo de retratar o comportamento de risco dos conscritos do Exército brasileiro à infecção pelo HIV segundo as macrorregiões brasileiras. Métodos: Foram utilizados dados de 37.282 conscritos, entre 17 e 22 anos, durante apresentação ao Exército em 2016. Estimaram-se as prevalências de HIV autorreferida e medida por exame laboratorial, além de indicadores de comportamento de risco, por macrorregiões geográficas. Resultados: Dos conscritos que compuseram a amostra, 75% relatou já ter iniciado atividade sexual, e a média de idade de início foi de aproximadamente 15 anos. O uso do preservativo variou de acordo com o tipo de parceria sexual, sendo menor na relação com parceiros(as) fixos(as) e maior nas parcerias menos estáveis. A prevalência da infecção pelo HIV medida através do diagnóstico laboratorial foi de 0,12% no Brasil, sendo mais prevalente na região Norte (0,24%). O consumo de álcool e drogas ilícitas foi maior na região Sul. Discussão: O estudo permitiu observar o monitoramento do comportamento de risco à infecção pelo HIV entre os jovens brasileiros. O menor uso de preservativo quando a parceria sexual é considerada estável pode estar contribuindo para aumentar o número de indivíduos infectados pelo HIV. Conclusão: Os resultados sugerem a necessidade de campanhas de divulgação para os jovens sobre práticas de sexo seguro, além da ampliação da oferta de testagem nessa população.

Estigma e discriminação relacionados à identidade de gênero e à vulnerabilidade ao HIV/aids entre mulheres transgênero: revisão sistemática / Estigma y discriminación relacionados con la identidad de género y la vulnerabilidad al VIH/SIDA entre mujeres transgénero: revisión sistemática / Stigma and discrimination related to gender identity and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among transgender women: a systematic review

Resumo: A prevalência de HIV entre mulheres transgênero é desproporcional quando comparamos com a população geral em vários países. O estigma e a discriminação, por conta da identidade de gênero, têm sido comumente associados à vulnerabilidade ao HIV/aids. O objetivo foi realizar uma revisão sistemática da literatura para analisar a relação entre o estigma e a discriminação relacionados à identidade de gênero de mulheres transgênero e à vulnerabilidade ao HIV/aids. Revisão sistemática da literatura, que envolveu as etapas de identificação, fichamento, análise e interpretação de resultados de estudos valendo-se da seleção em cinco bases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct e LILACS. Não houve estabelecimento de período de tempo a priori para essa revisão. Os estudos foram avaliados de acordo com critérios de inclusão e exclusão. Foram incluídos artigos em inglês, português ou espanhol, que relacionavam o estigma e a discriminação com a vulnerabilidade de mulheres transgênero ao HIV. Foram encontrados 41 artigos, majoritariamente qualitativos, publicados no período entre 2004 e 2018, e categorizados em três dimensões do estigma: nível individual, interpessoal e estrutural. Os dados permitem destacar que os efeitos do estigma relacionado à identidade de gênero, como a violência, a discriminação e a transfobia, são elementos estruturantes no processo da vulnerabilidade da população de mulheres transgênero ao HIV/aids. Os trabalhos mostraram relação entre estigma e discriminação com a vulnerabilidade de mulheres transgênero ao HIV/aids e apontaram para a necessidade de políticas públicas que combatam a discriminação na sociedade.

Resumen: La prevalencia de VIH entre mujeres transgénero es desproporcionada cuando la comparamos con la población general en varios países. El estigma y la discriminación, debido a la identidad de género, han sido comúnmente asociados a la vulnerabilidad al VIH/SIDA. El objetivo fue realizar una revisión sistemática de la literatura para analizar la relación entre el estigma y la discriminación, relacionados con la identidad de género de mujeres transgénero y su vulnerabilidad al VIH/SIDA. Se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura, que implicó etapas de identificación, registro, análisis e interpretación de resultados de estudios, a partir de una selección en cinco bases de datos: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct y LILACS. No se estableció un período de tiempo a priori para esta revisión. Los estudios se evaluaron según criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Se incluyeron artículos en inglés, portugués o español, que relacionaban el estigma y la discriminación con la vulnerabilidad de mujeres transgénero al VIH. Se encontraron 41 artículos, mayoritariamente cualitativos, publicados durante el período entre 2004 a 2018, y categorizados en tres dimensiones del estigma: nivel individual, interpersonal y estructural. Los datos permitieron destacar que los efectos del estigma, relacionado con la identidad de género, como la violencia, la discriminación y la transfobia, son elementos estructuradores en el proceso de la vulnerabilidad de la población de mujeres transgénero al VIH/SIDA. Los estudios mostraron una relación entre estigma y discriminación con la vulnerabilidad de mujeres transgénero al VIH/SIDA y señalan la necesidad de políticas públicas que combatan esta discriminación en la sociedad.

Abstract: HIV prevalence among transgender women is disproportional when compared to the general population in various countries. Stigma and discrimination based on gender identity have frequently been associated with vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. The objective was to conduct a systematic literature review to analyze the relationship between stigma and discrimination related to gender identity in transgender women and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. This systematic literature review involved the stages of identification, compilation, analysis, and interpretation of results of studies found in five databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and LILACS. No publication time period was determined in advance for this review. The studies were assessed according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The review included articles in English, Portuguese, or Spanish that related stigma and discrimination to transgender women's vulnerability to HIV. We found 41 studies, mostly qualitative, published from 2004 to 2018, and categorized in three dimensions of stigma: individual, interpersonal, and structural. The data highlighted that the effects of stigma related to gender identity, such as violence, discrimination, and transphobia, are structuring elements in transgender women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. The studies showed a relationship between stigma and discrimination and transgender women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and indicated the need for public policies to fight discrimination in society.

Syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus, herpes genital and hepatitis B in a women's prison in Cochabamba, Bolivia: prevalence and risk factors.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and factors associated with syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B (HBV) and herpes type 2 (HSV2) among women in the prison of San Sebastian in Cochabamba (Bolivia). MATERIAL AND METHODS: We carried out a cross-sectional study including a standardized questionnaire to assess socio-demographics characteristics and risk factors (sexual practices and exposure to blood); and serological tests for syphilis, HSV2, VIH, and HBV. We performed bivariate and multivariate analyses to test the associations between variables of interest and infections. RESULTS: A total of 219 out of 220 prisoners (99.5%) participated in the study. For syphilis, 12.8% of participants had both reactive tests (RPR+/TPPA+). The prevalence of HSV2 and VIH was 62.6% and 1.4%, respectively. Anti-HBc, indicating a resolved or chronic HBV, was positive in 11.9% of participants and 0.5% had active HBV (HBsAg positive). A low level of education was associated with syphilis, HSV2 and HBV. Having occasional sexual partners was associated with syphilis and HSV2. Being over 36 years old and having more than 3 children were associated with HBV. The number of sexual partners, history of prostitution and rape, having sexual intercourses in prison and detention time were not associated with any of these infections. DISCUSSION: The prevalence of syphilis, HIV, HSV2 and HBV was higher in this vulnerable female population than in the general population in Bolivia. Control measures in detention are needed to limit the spread of these infections both in prisons and in the community.

Why Do Young Hispanic Women Take Sexual Risks? Psychological and Cultural Factors for HIV Prevention.

Young Hispanic women have been particularly affected by HIV. For this reason, we analyzed the influence of cognitive factors, dispositional variables, and gender culture on the HIV risks of two groups of Hispanic women. Young Argentinian and Spanish women (N = 342) completed the AIDS Prevention Questionnaire, the Spanish version of the Sexual Compulsivity Scale, and the Spanish version of the Sexual Sensation Seeking Scale in order to evaluate knowledge of HIV transmission, HIV, and condom use; self-efficacy; safe-sex intention and safe sex; as well as Sexual Sensation Seeking and Sexual Compulsivity traits. Our findings support a different pattern of HIV risk based on gender inequality, although self-efficacy and sexual sensation seeking seem to have been the main important predictors of unsafe sex and HIV risk. Social and psychological factors should be considered to design HIV prevention strategies aimed at young Hispanic women.

Young Drug Users: a Vulnerable Population and an Underutilized Resource in HIV/HCV Prevention.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The social networks of people who inject drugs (PWID) have long been studied to understand disease transmission dynamics and social influences on risky practices. We illustrate how PWID can be active agents promoting HIV, HCV, and overdose prevention. RECENT FINDINGS: We assessed drug users' connections and interactions with others at risk for HIV/HCV in three cities: New York City (NYC), USA (n = 539); Pereira, Colombia (n = 50); and St. Petersburg, Russia (n = 49). In all three cities, the majority of participants' network members were of a similar age as themselves, yet connections across age groups were also present. In NYC, knowing any opioid user(s) older than 29 was associated with testing HCV-positive. In NYC and St. Petersburg, a large proportion of PWID engaged in intravention activities to support safer injection and overdose prevention; in Pereira, PWID injected, had sex, and interacted with other key groups at risk. People who use drugs can be active players in HIV/HCV and overdose risk- reduction; their networks provide them with ample opportunities to disseminate harm reduction knowledge, strategies, and norms to others at risk. Local communities could augment prevention programming by empowering drug users to be allies in the fight against HIV and facilitating their pre-existing health-protective actions.

HIV replication is associated to inflammasomes activation, IL-1ß, IL-18 and caspase-1 expression in GALT and peripheral blood.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) promotes an inflammatory process, leading to the progressive loss of the functional capacity of the immune system. The HIV infection induces alterations in several tissues, but mainly in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). However, the degree of GALT deterioration varies among infected individuals. In fact, it has been shown that HIV-controllers, who spontaneously control viral replication, exhibit a lower inflammatory response, and a relative normal frequency and function of most of the immune cells. Inflammasomes are molecular complexes involved in the inflammatory response, being NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRC4, AIM2 and Pyrin inflammasomes, the best characterized so far. These complexes regulate the maturation of cytokines of the IL-1 family, including IL-1ß and IL-18. These cytokines have been associated with immune activation and expansion of HIV target cells, promoting viral replication. Interesting, some reports indicate that HIV induces the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, but the role of this, and other inflammasomes during HIV infection, especially in GALT, remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To compare the relative expression of inflammasome components and the proinflammatory response related to their activity, between HIV-progressors and HIV-controllers. METHODS: GALT biopsies and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 15 HIV-controllers and 15 HIV-progressors were obtained. The relative expression of the following inflammasome components were evaluated by RT-PCR: NLRP3, NLRC4, NLRP1, AIM2, ASC, Caspase-1, IL-1ß and IL-18. In addition, plasma concentration of IL-18 was evaluated as an indicator of baseline proinflammatory status. Finally, in supernatants of PBMCs in vitro stimulated with inflammasome agonists, the concentrations of IL-1ß and IL-18 were quantified by ELISA. RESULTS: HIV-progressors exhibited higher expression of IL-1ß, IL-18 and caspase-1 genes in GALT and PBMCs compared with HIV-controllers. In addition, HIV-progressors had also increased expression of ASC in PBMCs. When plasma levels were evaluated, IL-18 was increased in HIV-progressors. Interesting, these patients also showed an increased production of IL-1ß in supernatants of PBMCs stimulated in vitro with the agonists of AIM2, NLRP1 and NLRC4 inflammasomes. Finally, the expression of caspase-1, NLRP1, IL-1ß and IL-18 in GALT or peripheral blood was correlated with CD4+ T-cell count and viral load. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that during HIV-infection, the required signals to induce the expression of different components of the inflammasomes are produced, both in GALT and in periphery. The activation of these molecular complexes could increase the number of target cells, favoring HIV replication and cell death, promoting the disease progression.

Una concepción actualizada de la adherencia al tratamiento antirretroviral / An updated conception adherence to antiretroviral treatment

RESUMEN Introducción: La adherencia al tratamiento antirretroviral es un aspecto importante a tener en cuenta para el mantenimiento de la salud del paciente con VIH/sida. Esta categoría es abordada por diferentes autores, por lo que se hace necesario un análisis valorativo de sus enfoques desde referentes en el contexto internacional y nacional. Objetivo: Sistematizar el término adherencia al tratamiento antirretroviral, al considerar su relación en las condiciones actuales con la salud de una población vulnerable como el paciente con sida. Métodos: Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica sistemática para desarrollar un análisis crítico reflexivo del contenido de documentos, donde se consideraron tesis de doctorado, de maestría, artículos originales y de revisión. Las palabras clave utilizadas fueron "adherencia", "tratamiento", "antirretrovirales", "adherencia terapéutica", siendo estas identificadas a través de DECs o de MeSH. Los criterios de inclusión para la selección de los artículos fueron: Artículos en español e inglés disponibles en los portales de datos seleccionados que presentaban adherencia a la temática, publicados entre los años 1997 y 2015 que presentaran de manera clara la metodología o referencial teórico seleccionado. Conclusiones: La indagación sobre la adherencia al tratamiento antirretroviral permitió definir operacionalmente esta categoría, son pocos los autores que la abordan; no obstante, los problemas que desafían la salud del paciente con VIH/sida en el contexto cubano condicionan la necesidad de promover la actualización del conocimiento en correspondencia con la situación internacional(AU)

ABSTRACT Introduction: Adherence to antiretroviral treatment is important to keep in mind for maintaining the health of patients with HIV/aids aspect. This category is approached by different authors, so an evaluative analysis of their referents approaches from international and national context is necessary. Objective: To systematize the term adherence to antiretroviral treatment, considering their relationship in the current health conditions of vulnerable populations such as patients with AIDS. Methods: Adherence, treatment, antiretroviral therapy adherence: content analysis of documents, which included original and review articles published from 1997 to 2015 in SciELO, Medisur, medigraphic and redalyc, with the following keywords performed. They were identified and reviewed 40 items, of which 24 were useful and monographs from various magazines that allowed the logical historical analysis of the evolution of the category. Conclusions: The inquiry on adherence to antiretroviral treatment allowed operationally define this category, few authors who addressed; however, problems that challenge the health of patients with HIV/aids in the Cuban context condition the need to promote the updating of knowledge in correspondence with the international situation(AU)