Exploring glycine root uptake dynamics in phosphorus and iron deficient tomato plants during the initial stages of plant development.

BACKGROUND: Phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) deficiencies are relevant plants nutritional disorders, prompting responses such as increased root exudation to aid nutrient uptake, albeit at an energy cost. Reacquiring and reusing exudates could represent an efficient energy and nitrogen saving strategy. Hence, we investigated the impact of plant development, Fe and P deficiencies on this process. Tomato seedlings were grown hydroponically for 3 weeks in Control, -Fe, and -P conditions and sampled twice a week. We used Isotope Ratio Mass-Spectrometry to measure δ13C in roots and shoots after a 2-h exposure to 13C-labeled glycine (0, 50, or 500 µmol L-1). Plant physiology was assessed with an InfraRed Gas Analyzer and ionome with an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass-Spectrometry. RESULTS: Glycine uptake varied with concentration, suggesting an involvement of root transporters with different substrate affinities. The uptake decreased over time, with -Fe and -P showing significantly higher values as compared to the Control. This highlights its importance during germination and in nutrient-deficient plants. Translocation to shoots declined over time in -P and Control but increased in -Fe plants, suggesting a role of Gly in the Fe xylem transport. CONCLUSIONS: Root exudates, i.e. glycine, acquisition and their subsequent shoot translocation depend on Fe and P deficiency. The present findings highlight the importance of this adaptation to nutrient deficiencies, that can potentially enhance plants fitness. A thorough comprehension of this trait holds potential significance for selecting cultivars that can better withstand abiotic stresses.

Iron deficiency in patients with a Fontan circulation and its impact on exercise capacity.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency (ID) has been reported in patients with congenital heart disease. There is, however, a scarcity of data on its prevalence in patients with a Fontan circulation. The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of ID in Fontan patients and to investigate the association between ID and exercise capacity in this population. METHODS AND RESULTS: Blood count and haematological parameters were determined in plasma of 61 Fontan patients (51% female, mean age 29±9 years). ID was defined as transferrin saturation (TSAT) ≤19.8%. The prevalence of ID was 36% (22/61 patients). Especially among women, the diagnosis of ID was highly prevalent (52%) despite normal haemoglobin levels (153.7±18.4 g/L). Mean ferritin levels were 98±80 µg/L and mean TSAT levels were 22%±12%. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing was performed in 46 patients (75%). Patients with ID had a lower peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak) (1397±477 vs 1692±530 mL/min; p=0.039), although this relationship was confounded by sex. The presence of ID increased the likelihood of not achieving a respiratory exchange ratio (RER) ≥1.1 by 5-fold (p=0.035). CONCLUSION: ID is highly prevalent among patients with a Fontan circulation. V̇O2peak is lower in patients with ID. Fontan patients with ID are less likely to achieve an RER≥1.1 during cardiopulmonary exercise testing.

Iron deficiency affects oxygen transport and activates HIF1 signaling pathway to regulate phenotypic transformation of VSMC in aortic dissection.

BACKGROUND: Aortic dissection (AD) is a macrovascular disease which is pathologically characterized by aortic media degeneration.This experiment aims to explore how iron deficiency (ID) affects the function of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) and participates in the occurrence and development of AD by regulating gene expression. METHODS: The relationship between iron and AD was proved by Western-blot (WB) and immunostaining experiments in human and animals. Transcriptomic sequencing explored the transcription factors that were altered downstream. WB, flow cytometry and immunofluorescence were used to demonstrate whether ID affected HIF1 expression through oxygen transport. HIF1 signaling pathway and phenotypic transformation indexes were detected in cell experiments. The use of the specific HIF1 inhibitor PX478 further demonstrated that ID worked by regulating HIF1. RESULTS: The survival period of ID mice was significantly shortened and the pathological staining results were the worst. Transcriptomic sequencing indicated that HIF1 was closely related to ID and the experimental results indicated that ID might regulate HIF1 expression by affecting oxygen balance. HIF1 activation regulates the phenotypic transformation of VSMC and participates in the occurrence and development of AD in vivo and in vitro.PX478, the inhibition of HIF1, can improve ID-induced AD exacerbation.

Exploring the Role of Debaryomyces hansenii as Biofertilizer in Iron-Deficient Environments to Enhance Plant Nutrition and Crop Production Sustainability.

The European "Green Deal" policies are shifting toward more sustainable and environmentally conscious agricultural practices, reducing the use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. This implies exploring alternative strategies. One promising alternative to improve plant nutrition and reinforce plant defenses is the use of beneficial microorganisms in the rhizosphere, such as "Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria and fungi". Despite the great abundance of iron (Fe) in the Earth's crust, its poor solubility in calcareous soil makes Fe deficiency a major agricultural issue worldwide. Among plant promoting microorganisms, the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii has been very recently incorporated, for its ability to induce morphological and physiological key responses to Fe deficiency in plants, under hydroponic culture conditions. The present work takes it a step further and explores the potential of D. hansenii to improve plant nutrition and stimulate growth in cucumber plants grown in calcareous soil, where ferric chlorosis is common. Additionally, the study examines D. hansenii's ability to induce systemic resistance (ISR) through a comparative relative expression study by qRT-PCR of ethylene (ET) biosynthesis (ACO1), or ET signaling (EIN2 and EIN3), and salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis (PAL)-related genes. The results mark a significant milestone since D. hansenii not only enhances nutrient uptake and stimulates plant growth and flower development but could also amplify induced systemic resistance (ISR). Although there is still much work ahead, these findings make D. hansenii a promising candidate to be used for sustainable and environmentally friendly integrated crop management.

Intravenous Iron Repletion for Patients With Heart Failure and Iron Deficiency: JACC State-of-the-Art Review.

Iron deficiency and heart failure frequently co-occur, sparking clinical research into the role of iron repletion in this condition over the last 20 years. Although early nonrandomized studies and subsequent moderate-sized randomized controlled trials showed an improvement in symptoms and functional metrics with the use of intravenous iron, 3 recent larger trials powered to detect a difference in hard cardiovascular outcomes failed to meet their primary endpoints. Additionally, there are potential concerns related to side effects from intravenous iron, both in the short and long term. This review discusses the basics of iron biology and regulation, the diagnostic criteria for iron deficiency and the clinical evidence for intravenous iron in heart failure, safety concerns, and alternative therapies. We also make practical suggestions for the management of patients with iron deficiency and heart failure and outline key areas in need of future research.

Multiple Infections, Nutrient Deficiencies, and Inflammation as Determinants of Anemia and Iron Status during Pregnancy: The MINDI Cohort.

In pregnant women with multiple infections, nutrient deficiencies, and inflammation (MINDI), the study of anemia and iron status is limited. For this cross-sectional study (n = 213 Panamanian indigenous women), we investigated if hemoglobin, anemia (Hb < 110 g/L), ferritin, serum iron, serum transferrin receptor, and hepcidin were associated with (1) maternal nutritional status and supplementation practices, (2) biomarkers of inflammation, and (3) presence/absence of infections. Hierarchical generalized linear and logistic regression models and dominance analyses identified the relative importance of these predictors. Anemia (38%), which was likely underestimated due to low plasma volume (95%), was associated with lower ferritin, vitamin A, and weight-for-height, suggesting anemia of undernutrition. Inflammation was not associated with Hb or anemia; nevertheless, higher CRP was associated with increased odds of low serum iron and higher ferritin and hepcidin, indicating iron restriction due to inflammation. The length of iron supplementation did not enter models for anemia or iron indicators, but a multiple nutrient supplement was associated with higher ferritin and hepcidin. Moreover, iron supplementation was associated with higher odds of vaginal trichomoniasis but lower odds of caries and bacterial vaginosis. The complex pathogenesis of anemia and iron deficiency in MINDI settings may require other interventions beyond iron supplementation.

Prevalence of Iron Deficiency Using 3 Definitions Among Women in the US and Canada.

Importance: The prevalence of iron deficiency varies widely according to how it is defined. Objective: To compare the prevalence of iron deficiency among women using 3 different definitions. Design, Setting, and Participants: The cross-sectional Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening Study (HEIRS; 2000-2006) evaluated the prevalence, determinants, and outcomes of hemochromatosis and other iron-related disorders. Multiethnic, primary care-based screening (2001-2003) was performed at 5 field centers (4 in the US and 1 in Canada). Volunteer women aged 25 years and older were recruited at primary care venues associated with the field centers. Data were analyzed from June to December 2023. Main Outcomes and Measures: Measures included transferrin saturation, serum ferritin level, and self-reported age, pregnancy, and race and ethnicity. Three iron deficiency definitions were studied: (1) combined transferrin saturation less than 10% and serum ferritin less than 15 ng/mL (HEIRS), (2) serum ferritin less than 15 ng/mL (World Health Organization [WHO]), and (3) serum ferritin less than 25 ng/mL (a threshold for iron-deficient erythropoiesis [IDE]). Results: Among 62 685 women (mean [SD] age, 49.58 [14.27] years), 1957 women (3.12%) had iron deficiency according to the HEIRS definition, 4659 women (7.43%) had iron deficiency according to the WHO definition, and 9611 women (15.33%) had iron deficiency according to the IDE definition. Among 40 381 women aged 25 to 54 years, 1801 women (4.46%) had iron deficiency according to HEIRS, 4267 women (10.57%) had iron deficiency according to WHO, and 8573 women (21.23%) had iron deficiency according to IDE. Prevalence rates of iron deficiency among 2039 women aged 25 to 44 years who reported pregnancy were 5.44% (111 women) according to HEIRS, 18.05% (368 women) according to WHO, and 36.10% (736 women) according to IDE. Iron deficiency prevalence by the 3 respective definitions increased significantly in each racial and ethnic group and was significantly higher among Black and Hispanic participants than Asian and White participants. The relative iron deficiency prevalence among the 62 685 women increased 2.4-fold (95% CI, 2.3-2.5; P < .001) using the WHO definition and increased 4.9-fold (95% CI, 4.7-5.2; P < .001) using the IDE definition. Conclusions and Relevance: Three definitions of iron deficiency were associated with significantly different prevalence of iron deficiency in women, regardless of self-reported age, pregnancy, or race and ethnicity. Using higher serum ferritin thresholds to define iron deficiency could lead to diagnosis and treatment of more women with iron deficiency and greater reduction of related morbidity.

Mitochondrial iron deficiency triggers cytosolic iron overload in PKAN hiPS-derived astrocytes.

Disease models of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) offer the possibility to explore the relationship between iron dyshomeostasis and neurodegeneration. We analyzed hiPS-derived astrocytes from PANK2-associated neurodegeneration (PKAN), an NBIA disease characterized by progressive neurodegeneration and high iron accumulation in the globus pallidus. Previous data indicated that PKAN astrocytes exhibit alterations in iron metabolism, general impairment of constitutive endosomal trafficking, mitochondrial dysfunction and acquired neurotoxic features. Here, we performed a more in-depth analysis of the interactions between endocytic vesicles and mitochondria via superresolution microscopy experiments. A significantly lower number of transferrin-enriched vesicles were in contact with mitochondria in PKAN cells than in control cells, confirming the impaired intracellular fate of cargo endosomes. The investigation of cytosolic and mitochondrial iron parameters indicated that mitochondrial iron availability was substantially lower in PKAN cells compared to that in the controls. In addition, PKAN astrocytes exhibited defects in tubulin acetylation/phosphorylation, which might be responsible for unregulated vesicular dynamics and inappropriate iron delivery to mitochondria. Thus, the impairment of iron incorporation into these organelles seems to be the cause of cell iron delocalization, resulting in cytosolic iron overload and mitochondrial iron deficiency, triggering mitochondrial dysfunction. Overall, the data elucidate the mechanism of iron accumulation in CoA deficiency, highlighting the importance of mitochondrial iron deficiency in the pathogenesis of disease.

The relationship between menorrhagia, iron deficiency, and anaemia in recreationally active females: An exploratory population based screening study.

OBJECTIVES: Iron deficiency, anaemia, and menorrhagia - or heavy menstrual bleeding - are interrelated conditions that are highly prevalent and commonly underrecognised in exercising females of reproductive age. This study utilised a screening tool to identify risk factors and symptoms associated with heavy menstrual bleeding, iron deficiency, and anaemia in this population. DESIGN: An observational, cross sectional survey study was employed. METHODS: 1042 active females (aged 18-65) completed a comprehensive screening questionnaire and 887 (85 % compliance) provided a fingerprick blood sample for haemoglobin (Hb) concentration measurement. Women that presented as anaemic (defined as a [Hb] < 120 g/L) or deemed to be at risk of iron deficiency (120 < [Hb] < 130 g/L) were asked to complete follow-up blood tests to screen for iron studies. RESULTS: Average [Hb] was 134.2 ±â€¯12.1 g/L, with 94 individuals considered anaemic (10.6 %). Of the sample, 104 underwent follow-up blood tests; 51 (~49 %) presented with iron deficiency (defined as ferritin <30 µg/L). Based on survey responses, 274 (30.9 %) participants were determined to have heavy menstrual bleeding. Those presenting with heavy menstrual bleeding were younger, exercised fewer hours per week, and were more likely to have a history of iron deficiency or anaemia (all p < 0.05). Participants reporting a history of anaemia or iron deficiency were more likely to have heavy menstrual bleeding (anaemia: 39.7 %; iron deficiency; 36.9 %; both p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of exercising females of reproductive age, the prevalence of anaemia was 10.6 %. There is a strong association between heavy menstrual bleeding and a self-reported history of iron deficiency and anaemia. Greater awareness of heavy menstrual bleeding and its relationship with iron deficiency and anaemia is needed in this population. Non-invasive screening should be conducted to raise awareness and further understand the associated risk factors and symptomatology.

Effects of Iron Status on Adaptive Immunity and Vaccine Efficacy: A Review.

Vaccines can prevent infectious diseases, but their efficacy varies, and factors impacting vaccine effectiveness remain unclear. Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency, affecting >2 billion individuals. It is particularly common in areas with high infectious disease burden and in groups that are routinely vaccinated, such as infants, pregnant women, and the elderly. Recent evidence suggests that iron deficiency and low serum iron (hypoferremia) not only cause anemia but also may impair adaptive immunity and vaccine efficacy. A report of human immunodeficiency caused by defective iron transport underscored the necessity of iron for adaptive immune responses and spurred research in this area. Sufficient iron is essential for optimal production of plasmablasts and IgG responses by human B-cells in vitro and in vivo. The increased metabolism of activated lymphocytes depends on the high-iron acquisition, and hypoferremia, especially when occurring during lymphocyte expansion, adversely affects multiple facets of adaptive immunity, and may lead to prolonged inhibition of T-cell memory. In mice, hypoferremia suppresses the adaptive immune response to influenza infection, resulting in more severe pulmonary disease. In African infants, anemia and/or iron deficiency at the time of vaccination predict decreased response to diphtheria, pertussis, and pneumococcal vaccines, and response to measles vaccine may be increased by iron supplementation. In this review, we examine the emerging evidence that iron deficiency may limit adaptive immunity and vaccine responses. We discuss the molecular mechanisms and evidence from animal and human studies, highlight important unknowns, and propose a framework of key research questions to better understand iron-vaccine interactions.

Efficacy and Safety of Oral Supplementation with Liposomal Iron in Non-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease Patients with Iron Deficiency.

INTRODUCTION: Iron deficiency is common in patients with non-dialysis-dependent chronic kidney disease (NDD-CKD). Oral iron supplementation is recommended in these patients, but it is associated with a higher incidence of gastrointestinal adverse reactions. Liposomal iron therapy has been proposed as a new iron formulation, improving iron bioavailability with less side effects; however, few data are available in patients with NDD-CKD. METHODS: We designed a single-arm pilot study to evaluate the efficacy of liposomal iron administered for six months in correcting iron deficiency (defined as serum ferritin < 100 ng/mL and/or transferrin saturation < 20%) in patients with NDD-CKD stages 1-5. The primary endpoints were the achievement of serum ferritin ≥ 100 ng/mL and transferrin saturation ≥ 20%. Secondary outcomes were hemoglobin (Hb) changes and the safety of liposomal iron. RESULTS: The efficacy population included 34/38 patients, who completed at least one visit after baseline. Liposomal iron increased the achievement of transferrin saturation targets from 11.8% at baseline to 50.0% at month 6 (p = 0.002), while no significant correction of serum ferritin (p = 0.214) and Hb was found (p = 0.465). When patients were stratified by anemia (Hb < 12 g/dL in women and Hb < 13 g/dL in men), a significant improvement of transferrin saturation was observed only in anemic patients (from 13.3 ± 5.8% to 20.2 ± 8.1%, p = 0.012). Hb values slightly increased at month 6 only in anemic patients (+0.60 g/dL, 95%CI -0.27 to +1.48), but not in those without anemia (+0.08 g/dL, 95%CI -0.73 to +0.88). In patients taking at least one dose of liposomal iron (safety population, n = 38), the study drug was discontinued in eight patients due to death (n = 2), a switch to intravenous iron (n = 2), and the occurrence of side effects (n = 4). CONCLUSIONS: The use of liposomal iron in patients with NDD-CKD is associated with a partial correction of transferrin saturation, with no significant effect on iron storage and Hb levels.

Baby Food Pouches, Baby-Led Weaning, and Iron Status in New Zealand Infants: An Observational Study.

Iron deficiency in infants can impact development, and there are concerns that the use of baby food pouches and baby-led weaning may impair iron status. First Foods New Zealand (FFNZ) was an observational study of 625 New Zealand infants aged 6.9 to 10.1 months. Feeding methods were defined based on parental reports of infant feeding at "around 6 months of age": "frequent" baby food pouch use (five+ times per week) and "full baby-led weaning" (the infant primarily self-feeds). Iron status was assessed using a venepuncture blood sample. The estimated prevalence of suboptimal iron status was 23%, but neither feeding method significantly predicted body iron concentrations nor the odds of iron sufficiency after controlling for potential confounding factors including infant formula intake. Adjusted ORs for iron sufficiency were 1.50 (95% CI: 0.67-3.39) for frequent pouch users compared to non-pouch users and 0.91 (95% CI: 0.45-1.87) for baby-led weaning compared to traditional spoon-feeding. Contrary to concerns, there was no evidence that baby food pouch use or baby-led weaning, as currently practiced in New Zealand, were associated with poorer iron status in this age group. However, notable levels of suboptimal iron status, regardless of the feeding method, emphasise the ongoing need for paying attention to infant iron nutrition.

Prevalence of iron deficiency and anemia in pediatric heart transplant recipients.

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of iron deficiency and anemia in the setting of modern-day maintenance immunosuppression in pediatric heart transplant (HTx) recipients is unclear. The primary aim was to determine the prevalence of iron deficiency (serum ferritin < 30 ng/mL ± transferrin saturation < 20%) and anemia per World Health Organization diagnostic criteria and associated risk factors. METHODS: Single-center, cross-sectional analysis of 200 consecutive pediatric HTx recipients (<21 years old) from 2005 to 2021. Data were collected at 1-year post-HTx at the time of annual protocol biopsy. RESULTS: Median age at transplant was 3 years (IQR .5-12.2). The median ferritin level was 32 ng/mL with 46% having ferritin < 30 ng/mL. Median transferrin saturation (TSAT) was 22% with 47% having TSAT < 20%. Median hemoglobin was 11 g/dL with 54% having anemia. Multivariable analysis revealed lower absolute lymphocyte count, TSAT < 20%, and estimated glomerular filtration rate <75 mL/min/1.73 m2 were independently associated with anemia. Ferritin < 30 ng/mL in isolation was not associated with anemia. Ferritin < 30 ng/mL may aid in detecting absolute iron deficiency while TSAT < 20% may be useful in identifying patients with functional iron deficiency ± anemia in pediatric HTx recipients. CONCLUSION: Iron deficiency and anemia are highly prevalent in pediatric HTx recipients. Future studies are needed to assess the impact of iron deficiency, whether with or without anemia, on clinical outcomes in pediatric HTx recipients.

Iron parameters analysis in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease.

BACKGROUND: Myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD) is the most common acquired cardiovascular disease in small breed dogs. In contrast to human patients with heart failure (HF), iron deficiency (ID) prevalence in dogs with MMVD is weakly known. The study aimed to assess the usability of ID markers in serum and reticulocyte parameters from whole blood of dogs with MMVD to evaluate early ID symptoms. RESULTS: Sixty-eight dogs (43 male and 25 female) were included in the study. MMVD dogs were assigned according to the 2019 ACVIM guidelines for groups B1 (n = 9), B2 (n = 10), C (n = 27) and D (n = 10). Groups were also combined into B1 and B2 as non-symptomatic HF and C with D as symptomatic HF. Healthy controls were 12 dogs. Serum iron concentration below the reference range in dogs with MMVD was 12.5%. Other ID indices, such as %SAT, UIBC, and TIBC were similar in the MMVD groups and healthy controls (p > 0.05 for all parameters). Statistical comparison between control group and 4 groups of different stages of MMVD showed that significant differences occur only in serum transferrin. The assessment of ferritin and soluble transferrin receptors using Western Blotting did not show differences between control (n = 7) and MMVD (n = 33) dogs. Study has shown positive correlation between ID parameters and echocardiographic indices such as LA/Ao and LVIDdN, and some biochemical parameters. A significant increase in reticulocytes percentage, assessed manually, was observed in the HF group of animals (p = 0.027) compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Studies have shown that ID parameters in serum are not significantly different in dogs with MMVD compared to healthy dogs. However, there is a clear correlation between atrial size and normalised left ventricular size to body size and some biochemical parameters, including ID parameters and therefore the severity of MMVD.

Iron Deficiency Related to Obesity.

There is a direct correlation between being overweight and iron deficiency. Physiological changes occur in obese adipose cells that contribute to the development of iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA). These changes disrupt the normal iron metabolic checks and balances. Furthermore, bariatric surgery can lead to long-term ID and IDA. Oral iron supplementation may not be effective for many of these patients. Intravenous iron infusions can significantly increase the quality of life for individuals experiencing this condition but are also associated with potentially serious complications. Adequate knowledge about intravenous (IV) iron administration can greatly increase the safety of this beneficial therapy. This review article explains the relationship between obesity, ID/IDA, bariatric surgery and the safe administration of IV iron.

Manual para la capacitación de actores sociales. Compromiso 1: "Mejora del estado nutricional y de salud de los gestantes y niños hasta los 12 meses de edad para la prevención de la anemia" / Manual for the training of social actors. Commitment 1: "Improvement of the nutritional and health status of pregnant women and children up to 12 months of age for the prevention of anemia"

El presente manual, ofrece al facilitador, y/o personal de salud, una metodología y orientaciones para seguir fortaleciendo las capacidades, habilidades y destrezas de los actores sociales, en el uso del rotafolio en los temas priorizados, para el desarrollo de visitas domiciliarias con calidad, logrando en los padres de familia o gestantes, una cultura de cuidado y protección para sus niñas y niños hasta 12 meses de edad, con énfasis en la prevención de la anemia

Iron deficiency in astrocytes alters cellular status and impacts on oligodendrocyte differentiation.

Iron deficiency (ID) has been shown to affect central nervous system (CNS) development and induce hypomyelination. Previous work from our laboratory in a gestational ID model showed that both oligodendrocyte (OLG) and astrocyte (AST) maturation was impaired. To explore the contribution of AST iron to the myelination process, we generated an in vitro ID model by silencing divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) in AST (siDMT1 AST) or treating AST with Fe3+ chelator deferoxamine (DFX; DFX AST). siDMT1 AST showed no changes in proliferation but remained immature. Co-cultures of oligodendrocyte precursors cells (OPC) with siDMT1 AST and OPC cultures incubated with siDMT1 AST-conditioned media (ACM) rendered a reduction in OPC maturation. These findings correlated with a decrease in the expression of AST-secreted factors IGF-1, NRG-1, and LIF, known to promote OPC differentiation. siDMT1 AST also displayed increased mitochondrial number and reduced mitochondrial size as compared to control cells. DFX AST also remained immature and DFX AST-conditioned media also hampered OPC maturation in culture, in keeping with a decrease in the expression of AST-secreted growth factors IGF-1, NRG-1, LIF, and CNTF. DFX AST mitochondrial morphology and number showed results similar to those observed in siDMT1 AST. In sum, our results show that ID, induced through two different methods, impacts AST maturation and mitochondrial functioning, which in turn hampers OPC differentiation.