Periodisation Strategies: A Meta-Analysis Unravelling the Impact on Optimising Athletic Peak Performance.

The present study aimed to identify the impact of various periodisation approaches used in training athletes and to identify the effect size of the periodisation technique in improving athletes' peak performance before the main event. Inclusion criteria comprised recruitment of all those studies in which the effects of periodisation training were identified on athletes' peak performance. Various databases such as Google Scholar, Pedro, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and Web of Science were searched by independent reviewers using the MeSH terms including 'interval training', 'aerobic exercise', 'periodisation,' 'peak performance', and 'athletes'. A sample size of n = 121 participants included in six studies were analysed in which the effects of periodisation methods of training among athletes were estimated for improving their peak performance by assessing jump height and speed, pool effects in the form of random, and fixed effect model were provided to depict cumulative results of all the included studies. In achieving optimisation in athletes' peak performance, inculcating the concept of periodisation is a practical approach. While incorporating periodisation in training, models of training principles must be given ardent importance. Key Words: Exercise training, Sports, Athletes, Periodisation, Peak performance.

Effects of 6-Week Motor-Cognitive Agility Training on Football Test Performance in Adult Amateur Players - A Three-Armed Randomized Controlled Trial.

Agility, defined as the ability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events, constitutes a central performance component in football. Existing agility training approaches often focus on change of direction that does not reflect the complex motor-cognitive demands on the pitch. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of a novel motor-cognitive dual-task agility training (Multiple-object tracking integrated into agility training) on agility and football-specific test performance parameters, compared to agility and a change of direction (COD) training. Adult male amateur football players (n = 42; age: 27±6; height: 181±7cm; weight: 80±12kg) were randomly allocated to one of the three intervention groups (COD, agility, agility + multiple object tracking). The Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), a dribbling test with/without cognitive task as well as the Random Star Run (with/without ball) and the modified T-Test were assessed before and after a 6-week training period. Time effects within the T-Test (F = 83.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and dribbling test without cognitive task (F = 23.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.38) with improvements of all intervention groups (p < 0.05) were found. Dribbling with cognitive task revealed a time effect (F = 7.8; p = 0.008; η2 = 0.17), with improvements exclusively in the agility and dual-task agility groups (p < 0.05). Random Star Run with and without ball exhibited a time (F = 38.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.5; F = 82.7; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and interaction effect (F = 14.14; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.42; F = 27.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.59), with improvements for the agility and dual-task agility groups. LSPT showed no time, group or interaction effect. The effects of change of direction training are limited to change of direction and dribbling test performance within preplanned scenarios. In contrast, motor-cognitive agility interventions result in notable enhancements in football-specific and agility tests, incorporating decision-making and multitasking components. No differences were observed between agility and agility + multiple object tracking. To achieve a transfer to game-relevant performance, coaches should focus on integrating cognitive challenges into motor training.

Can The Pitch Dimension Influence the Physical Fitness Adaptations Induced by Small-Sided Training Programs Added to Regular In-Field Training? A Randomized Controlled Study in Youth Soccer Players.

Small-sided games (SSGs) are frequently utilized in training settings to elicit specific stimuli that can promote physical fitness adaptations over time. However, various task constraints, such as pitch dimensions, can significantly influence both the acute external and internal load responses. Thus, understanding the impact of different pitch dimensions on physical fitness adaptations is crucial. This study sought to compare the physical adaptations induced by an SSG-based program utilizing more elongated pitches (SSGlw2; length-to-width ratio: 2.0) versus less elongated pitches (SSGwl1; length-to-width ratio: 1.0) on the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIRT), and 30-meter sprint. This study employed a randomized controlled design. Forty-eight male soccer players (16.4 ± 0.6 years) participated. These players were randomly allocated to two experimental groups (N = 16, SSGlw1; N = 16, SSGlw2) and underwent two weekly additional training sessions over an 8-week period, while a group of 16 players continued with their regular in-field sessions as a control group. Evaluations were conducted before and after the intervention period. Significant interactions time u group were observed in regards YYIRT (F = 15.857; p < 0.001; = 0.413) and 30-m sprint test (p < 0.001). Between-group differences on YYIRT were found in post-intervention (p < 0.001), on which SSGlw2 (p < 0.001) and SSGlw1 (p < 0.001) were significantly greater in comparison to control group. Additionally, between-group differences on 30-m sprint were found in post-intervention (p < 0.001), on which SSGlw2 was significantly better than SSGlw1 (p < 0.001) and control group (p < 0.001). Coaches are advised to prioritize the use of more elongated pitch sizes to promote adaptations in sprint performance, while still acknowledging that aerobic capacity improvements remain significant compared to other pitch shapes.

Effects of a horizontal speed deceleration training programme on measures of physical fitness in youth male handball players.

This study examined the effects of an 8-week horizontal speed deceleration training (HSDT) programme in combination with regular handball-specific training as compared with handball-specific training only in measures of physical fitness in male youth handball players. Thirty-nine players were randomly assigned to either an HSDT group (n = 18; 15.55 ± 0.24 years) or an active-control group (CG; n = 21; 14.59 ± 0.23 years). The results showed significant and large between-group differences at post-test in countermovement jump, change-of-direction speed, and repeated sprint ability (RSA) (all p < 0.01; d = 2.04 and 1.37, 1.39, 1.53, and 1.53 for the CMJ, 505 CoD, RSAbest, RSAaverage, and RSAtotal performances, respectively). The post-hoc-analysis demonstrated significant and large improvements in all measures of physical fitness in the HSDT group (∆2.49% to 16,25%; d = 1.01 to 1,70; all p < 0,01). The CG, however, failed to reach any significant difference in all measures of physical fitness ((∆0.31% to 1.98%; d = 0.15 to 0.22; p = 0.379; p > 0.05). To summarise, an 8-week in-season HSDT programme alongside regular handball-specific training yielded positive effects on various performance measures including jumping ability, CoD speed, and RSA, when compared to handball-specific training alone. These results highlight the potential benefits of integrating HSDT into the training regimen of youth handball athletes during the competitive season.

Changes in running economy and attainable maximal oxygen consumption in response to prolonged running: The impact of training status.

During prolonged running at moderate-to-high intensity, running economy (RE) deteriorates and attainable maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) decreases. Whether these changes appear similarly in trained and untrained runners exercising at the same relative intensity is not clear. We recruited 10 trained runners (TR) and 10 active adults (AA), and compared RE and attainable VO2max before and after 1 h of running at 70% of VO2max. Submaximal VO2 increased more (p = 0.019) in AA (0.20 ± 0.13 L min-1) than in TR (0.07 ± 0.05 L min-1). Attainable VO2max decreased in AA (-0.21 ± 0.15 L min-1, p = 0.002), but remained unchanged in TR (-0.05 ± 0.10 L min-1, p = 0.18). Relative intensity (i.e., VO2/attainable VO2max), increased more (p = 0.001) in AA (8.3 ± 4.4%) than in TR (2.6 ± 1.9%). These results demonstrate that the ability to resist changes in RE and VO2max following prolonged running is superior in trained versus untrained runners, when exercising at the same relative intensity.

Association between match-related physical activity profiles and playing positions in different tasks: A data driven approach.

Assessing the intensity characteristics of specific soccer drills (matches, small-side game, and match-based exercises) could help practitioners to plan training sessions by providing the optimal stimulus for every player. In this paper, we propose a data analytics framework to assess the neuromuscular or metabolic characteristics of a soccer-specific exercise in relation with the expected match intensity. GPS data describing the physical tasks' external intensity during an entire season of twenty-eight semi-professional soccer players competing at the fourth Italian division were used in this study. A supervised machine-learning approach was tested in order to detect difference in playing positions in different sport-specific drills. Moreover, a non-supervised machine-learning model was used to profile the match neuromuscular and metabolic characteristics. Players' playing positions during matches and match-based exercises are characterised by specific metabolic and neuromuscular characteristics related to tactical demands, while in the small-side game these differences are not detected. Additionally, our framework permits to evaluate if the match performance request is mirrored during training drills. Practitioners could evaluate the type of stimulus performed by a player in a specific training drill in order to assess if they reflect the matches characteristics of their specific playing position.

Which training load indicators are greater correlated with maturation and wellness variables in elite U14 soccer players?

BACKGROUND: Monitoring of training load is done to improve physical performance and minimize the incidence of injuries. The study examined the correlation between accumulated training load parameters based on periods with maturity (i.e., maturity offset and peak height velocity -PHV- and wellness variables -e.g., stress and sleep quality-). The second aim was to analyze the multi-linear regression between the above indicators. METHODS: Twenty elite young U14 soccer players (M = 13.26 ± 0.52 years, 95% CI [13.02, 13.51]) were evaluated over 26 weeks (early, mid, and end-season) to obtain stress, sleep quality, and measures of workload in the season (accumulated acute workload [AW], accumulated chronic workload [CW], accumulated acute: chronic workload ratio [ACWLR], accumulated training monotony [TM], accumulated training strain [TS]). RESULTS: The analysis revealed a moderate, statistically significant negative correlation between sleep quality and training monotony (r = -0.461, p < 0.05). No significant correlations were observed between other variables (p > 0.05). In the multi-linear regression analysis, maturity, PHV, sleep, and stress collectively accounted for variances of 17% in AW, 17.1% in CW, 11% in ACWLR, 21.3% in TM, and 22.6% in TS. However, individual regression coefficients for these predictors were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), indicating limited predictive power. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the impact of sleep quality on training monotony, underscoring the importance of managing training load to mitigate the risks of overtraining. The non-significant regression coefficients suggest the complexity of predicting training outcomes based on the assessed variables. These insights emphasize the need for a holistic approach in training load management and athlete wellness monitoring.

Learning effects in over-ground running gait retraining: A six-month follow-up of a quasi-randomized controlled trial.

This study evaluated learning and recall effects following a feedback-based retraining program. A 6-month follow-up of a quasi-randomized controlled trial was performed with and without recall. Twenty runners were assigned to experimental or control groups and completed a 3-week running program. A body-worn system collected axial tibial acceleration and provided real-time feedback on peak tibial acceleration for six running sessions in an athletic training facility. The experimental group received music-based biofeedback in a faded feedback scheme. The controls received tempo-synchronized music as a placebo for blinding purposes. The peak tibial acceleration and vertical loading rate of the ground reaction force were determined in a lab at baseline and six months following the intervention to assess retention and recall. The impacts of the experimental group substantially decreased at follow-up following a simple verbal recall (i.e., run as at the end of the program): peak tibial acceleration:-32%, p = 0.018; vertical loading rate:-34%, p = 0.006. No statistically significant changes were found regarding the retention of the impact variables. The impact magnitudes did not change over time in the control group. The biofeedback-based intervention did not induce clear learning at follow-up, however, a substantial impact reduction was recallable through simple cueing in the absence of biofeedback.

Effect of Level of Competition and Drill Typology on Internal and External Load in Male Volleyball Players During the Preseason Period.

PURPOSE: This study aimed at evaluating the effect of level of competition and drill typology on loads during the preseason period in male volleyball players. METHODS: Internal (percentage of peak heart rate [HR] and summated HR zone) and external (PlayerLoad per minute, total and high accelerations per minute [tACCmin and hACCmin], decelerations per minute [tDECmin and hDECmin], and jumps per minute [tJUMPmin and hJUMPmin]) loads were monitored across a 5-week preseason period in 12 Division 1 (age: 22.5 [3.9] y; stature: 188 [6.2] cm; body mass: 85 [11.6] kg; training experience: 9.4 [4.2] y) and 12 Division 2 (age: 20.7 [2.9] y; stature: 186 [6.2] cm; body mass: 77.8 [9.6] kg; training experience: 5.6 [2.3] y) male volleyball players. Furthermore, differences in load were assessed for each drill typology (warm-up, conditioning, technical, tactical, and integral). RESULTS: No effects (P > .05) of level of competition on the internal (except for summated HR zone, P = .05) and external loads (except for tJUMPmin, P = .002) were found. Differently, drill typologies showed an effect (P < .001) on all the investigated internal- and external-load measures. The main post hoc results revealed higher (P < .05) percentage of peak HR, summated HR zone, PlayerLoad per minute, and tACCmin in warm-up and conditioning drills, while higher (P < .05) hDECmin and hJUMPmin were found in tactical and integral drills. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that volleyball coaches use warm-up and conditioning drills when aiming at increasing the internal loads, PlayerLoad per minute, and tACCmin, while tactical and integral drills should be preferred to enhance the number of hDECmin and hJUMPmin.

Greater Psychophysiological Intensities in Conditioned Games May Impair Technical Performance: An Exploratory Study in Youth Male Soccer Players.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was 2-fold: (1) to examine the relationships between psychophysiological responses and locomotor demands with variations in technical performance during 2v2 and 4v4 conditioned games and (2) to compare psychophysiological and locomotor responses among players exhibiting higher and lower technical performance levels during the conditioned games. METHODS: Twenty-four male youth soccer players (16.3 ± 0.8 y old) participating at the trained/developmental level underwent monitoring for psychophysiological responses (including heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and visual analog scale), locomotor demands (such as distance covered), and technical performance variables (including successful and unsuccessful passes and shots, as well as lost balls) across 2v2 and 4v4 formats. These formats were applied 4 times within a single session and were replicated twice over 2 weeks. RESULTS: Large correlations between the number of lost balls per minute and mean heart rate were found in both the 2v2 and 4v4 games (r = .586 and r = .665, respectively). Successful shots were inversely and largely correlated with mean heart rate (r = -.518) in 4v4 games. The number of interceptions per minute was inversely and significantly correlated with the visual analog scale in 2v2 and 4v4 games (r = -.455 and r = -.710, respectively). The frequency of lost balls was significantly higher among players who attained a higher mean heart rate (2v2: +42.9%, P = .031, d = -0.965; 4v4: +57.1%, P < .001, d = -2.072). CONCLUSIONS: Coaches should be aware that highly psychophysiologically demanding scenarios may significantly impair technical performance. Therefore, prioritizing technical performance by deliberately adjusting the intensity should be considered.

Best practices for the dissemination and implementation of neuromuscular training injury prevention warm-ups in youth team sport: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate best practices for neuromuscular training (NMT) injury prevention warm-up programme dissemination and implementation (D&I) in youth team sports, including characteristics, contextual predictors and D&I strategy effectiveness. DESIGN: Systematic review. DATA SOURCES: Seven databases were searched. ELIGIBILITY: The literature search followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. INCLUSION CRITERIA: participation in a team sport, ≥70% youth participants (<19 years), D&I outcomes with/without NMT-related D&I strategies. The risk of bias was assessed using the Downs & Black checklist. RESULTS: Of 8334 identified papers, 68 were included. Sport participants included boys, girls and coaches. Top sports were soccer, basketball and rugby. Study designs included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) (29.4%), cross-sectional (23.5%) and quasi-experimental studies (13.2%). The median Downs & Black score was 14/33. Injury prevention effectiveness (vs efficacy) was rarely (8.3%) prioritised across the RCTs evaluating NMT programmes. Two RCTs (2.9%) used Type 2/3 hybrid approaches to investigate D&I strategies. 19 studies (31.6%) used D&I frameworks/models. Top barriers were time restrictions, lack of buy-in/support and limited benefit awareness. Top facilitators were comprehensive workshops and resource accessibility. Common D&I strategies included Workshops with supplementary Resources (WR; n=24) and Workshops with Resources plus in-season Personnel support (WRP; n=14). WR (70%) and WRP (64%) were similar in potential D&I effect. WR and WRP had similar injury reduction (36-72%) with higher adherence showing greater effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Workshops including supplementary resources supported the success of NMT programme implementation, however, few studies examined effectiveness. High-quality D&I studies are needed to optimise the translation of NMT programmes into routine practice in youth sport.

Countermovement-Jump and Pull-Up Performance Before and After a Swimming Race in Preparatory and Competitive Phases of a Swimming Season.

PURPOSE: Monitoring performance athletes' training responses can be efficiently completed at competitive events. This study aimed to explore the changes in swimming, countermovement-jump (CMJ), and pull-up (PU) performance following training across a competitive phase, as well as immediately before and after each race. METHODS: Fourteen well-trained male sprint/middle-distance swimmers (height 179 [7] cm, mass 70 [8] kg, age 18 [2] y), from 3 regional training groups, completed CMJ and PU tests before and after the national competitions in October and May, when race performance was also assessed. RESULTS: Swimming race performance was significantly improved from before the national competitions in October to after the national competitions in May (1.8% [3.2%], P = .044, d = 0.60, moderate effect). Although there were no significant changes in PU velocity, CMJ performance significantly improved from before the national competitions in October to after the national competitions in May (mean difference 2.29 cm, P = .004, d = 3.52) and showed before-to-after race decreases (mean difference -1.64 cm, P = .04, d = 2.28). CONCLUSION: Swimming performance and CMJ performance improved as the season progressed, although these improvements were not directly correlated. PU performance did not appear to be sensitive to training or race-induced fatigue, in contrast to CMJ, in this group of male swimmers.

Negotiating periodised training programmes in youth soccer development: A social process.

The purpose of the study was to develop new knowledge about the everyday realities when implementing periodised training programmes in professional soccer Academies. Specifically, this project enhances understanding in relation to 1) those stakeholders involved in periodised training programmes in professional soccer Academies, 2) factors that facilitate and constrain the design, implementation, and monitoring of periodised programmes, 3) the extent to which practitioners perceive that education programmes adequately prepared them for this aspect of their work. Academy managers, coaches and sport science support staff were approached to complete an online survey, with 30 individuals (33.6 ± 9.5 years old) agreeing to do so. Findings highlight that practitioners "have" to adapt their practices accordingly in response to contextually constraining factors. Here, the importance of developing richer insights into the social aspects of work in applied settings, greater recognition of facilitating and constraining factors, and an improved awareness and development of the educational interventions that can prepare practitioners in applied practice is emphasised.

Practices and perceptions of strength and conditioning training in female golf: A cross-sectional survey study of high-level amateur players.

This study aims to ascertain an in-depth understanding of current practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level amateur female golfers. A cross-sectional, explorative survey study was constructed which asked questions relating to four key areas: i) general participant information, ii) current strength and conditioning (S&C) practices, iii) the perceived influence of S&C training on golf performance, and iv) knowledge and awareness of S&C. Results showed that the majority of female players had participated in some form of S&C training in the past, with the majority believing that clubhead speed and carry distance were the primary golfing metrics which could be positively impacted. More specifically, 91-97% of the players "Strongly agreed" or "Agreed" that the key physical characteristics for golf were strength and power for the lower and upper body, and flexibility. Interestingly, 58% of the players believed that S&C training should mimic the movement of the golf swing, which based off current evidence, is not how drive metrics and ultimately shots gained, can be maximised. This survey study provides useful information relating to the practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level female amateur players and areas where education may be able to further advance player understanding of physical preparation.

Effects of Repeated High-Intensity Effort Training or Repeated Sprint Training on Repeated High-Intensity Effort Ability and In-Game Performance in Professional Rugby Union Players.

ABSTRACT: Glaise, P, Rogowski, I, and Martin, C. Effects of repeated high-intensity effort training or repeated sprint training on repeated high-intensity effort ability and in-game performance in professional rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 932-940, 2024-This study investigated the effects of repeated high-intensity efforts (RHIE) training compared with repeated sprint exercise (RSE) training on RHIE ability (RHIEa) and in-game performance in professional rugby union players. Thirty-nine, male, professional, rugby union players were randomly assigned to 3 training groups (RHIE training, RSE training, and control). Repeated high-intensity effort ability and high-intensity effort characteristics (including sprints, acceleration, and contact efforts) during official games were measured before and after a 10-week specific (RHIE, RSE, or control) training period. The results of this study showed that concerning RHIEa, both the RHIE and RSE training significantly increased the players' average sprint velocity ( p < 0.001, d = -0.39 and p < 0.001, d = -0.53 respectively), average sled push velocity (ASPV; p < 0.001, d = -0.81 and p = 0.017, d = -0.48 respectively), and RHIE score ( p < 0.001, d = -0.72 and p < 0.001, d = -0.60 respectively). Repeated high-intensity effort training trended in a smaller increase in average sprint velocity than RSE training, a larger increase in ASPV, and a similar increase in RHIE score. Concerning in-game high-intensity efforts, both the RHIE and RSE training produced significant improvements in the number of sprints ( p = 0.047, d = -0.28 and p < 0.001, d = -0.47 respectively), total distance ( p < 0.001, d = -0.50 and p = 0.002, d = -0.38 respectively), the number of accelerations ( p < 0.001, d = -0.37 and p = 0.003, d = -0.32 respectively), and contact rate ( p < 0.001, d = -0.97 and p = 0.020, d = -0.28 respectively). Conversely, the magnitude of the increase in contact rate was almost twice as high in RHIE compared with RSE training. To conclude, the findings of this study were that both RSE and RHIE training are effective methods for developing RHIEa and in-game high-intensity efforts in professional rugby union. In practical applications, as the gains in certain abilities and game performance data differed depending on the training method chosen, we suggest that coaches choose the most appropriate method according to the profile of the players, their position, and the style of play they want to develop.

Mind the Gap: Comparison of External Load and Load Variation Between a Reserve Team in a 1-Game Week Microcycle and Its First Team in a 2-Game Week Microcycle Within an Elite Professional Soccer Club.

ABSTRACT: Carpels, T, Scobie, N, Macfarlane, NG, and Kemi, OJ. Mind the gap: comparison of external load and load variation between a reserve team in a 1-game week microcycle and its first team in a 2-game week microcycle within an elite professional soccer club. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): e235-e242, 2024-The aim of this study was to quantify and compare weekly external load and within-week load variation of reserve team players (RES) in a 1-game week microcycle to first team players (FT) in a 2-game week microcycle within the same professional soccer club. External load data were collected between 2017 and 2020 for the following parameters: duration, total distance (TD), total high-speed distance (THSD; >19.8 km·h -1 ), high-speed distance (HSD; 19.8-25.2 km·h -1 ), sprint distance (SD; >25.2 km·h -1 ), number of sprints (number of efforts >25.2 km·h -1 ), number of high-speed efforts (number of HS efforts >19.8 km·h -1 ), meters per minute (m·min -1 ), and high-speed meters per minute (HS m·min -1 ). First team players were subcategorized into starters (ST) and nonstarters (NST). Intergroup differences in cumulative weekly load and weekly load patterns were statistically analyzed, whereas training monotony (TM) was quantified to assess intragroup, within-week, load variation. Reserve team players showed similar weekly loads to ST, apart from significant differences ( p < 0.005) in duration (8%), TD (21%), and HS efforts (16%). Similar to ST, RES showed greater values than NST ( p < 0.0005) for duration (10%), TD (9%), THSD (30%), HSD (26%), SD (45%), sprints (40%), and HS efforts (22%). Weekly patterns in RES were different from ST and NST ( p < 0.05). Training monotony was highest for NST for all parameters, apart from the number of sprints. Reserve team players need to be prepared to cope with cumulative weekly loads and the lack of recovery between games that ST face. However, when RES become NST, effective loading strategies need to be designed within the limits of 2-game week microcycles to ensure continuous development.

Five-Week, Low-Intensity Blood Flow Restriction Rowing Improves V̇ o2 max in Elite Rowers.

ABSTRACT: Held, S, Rappelt, L, Rein, R, Deutsch, J-P, Wiedenmann, T, and Donath, L. Five-week, low-intensity, blood flow restriction rowing improves V̇ o2 max in elite rowers. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): e299-e303, 2024-This controlled intervention study examined the effects of low-intensity rowing with blood flow restriction (BFR) on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ o2 max), peak power output during ramp testing (PPO), and 2000-m time trial performance (P2k). Eleven, highly elite, male rowers (22.1 ± 1.6 years; 92.6 ± 3.8 kg; 1.93 ± 0.04 m; 7.9. ± 2.2 years rowing experience; 20.4 ± 2.0 h·w -1 training volume; 11.9 ± 1.1 session per week) trained 5 weeks without BFR (Base) followed by a 5-week BFR intervention period. BFR of the lower limb was applied through customized elastic wraps. BFR took place 3 times a week (accumulated net pBFR: 60 min·wk -1 ; occlusion per session: 2 times 10 min·session -1 ) and was used exclusively at low intensities (<2 mmol·L -1 ). V̇ o2 max, PPO, and P2k were examined before, between, and after both intervention periods. Bayesian's credible intervals revealed relevantly increased V̇ o2 max +0.30 L·min -1 (95% credible interval: +0.00 to +0.61 L·min -1 ) adaptations through BFR. By contrast, PPO +14 W (-6 to +34 W) and P2k -5 W (-14 to +3 W) were not noticeably affected by the BFR intervention. This study revealed that 15 sessions of BFR application with a cumulative total BFR load of 5 h over a 5-week macrocycle increased V̇ o2 max remarkably. Thus, pBFR might serve as a promising tool to improve aerobic capacity in highly trained elite rowers.

The Quantification of Physical Performance and Internal Training Load in Youth Male Soccer Players During Preseason.

PURPOSE: The monitoring of training loads and quantification of physical performance are common practices in youth soccer academies to support coaches in prescribing and programming training for individuals. The interaction between training load and physical performance is unknown during a preseason period in youth soccer players. The current study assessed changes in training load and physical assessments across a 4-week preseason period. The relationship between physical performance and match playing time in youth male soccer players was also investigated. METHODS: The training loads of 25 professional youth academy male soccer players were monitored throughout a 4-week preseason period. Assessments of power, agility, speed, and aerobic capacity were undertaken in the first training session. Session ratings of perceived exertion (sRPE) and well-being questionnaires were collected during all training sessions and preseason matches. Playing time during subsequent competitive matches was recorded. RESULTS: T test and 30-m-sprint assessments, conducted on the first day of preseason, were predictors of sRPE throughout preseason (t test χ2/df = 2.895, poor adjustment; 30-m sprint χ2/df = 1.608, good adjustment). YoYo Test performance was related with changes in perceived fatigue (χ2/df = 0.534, very good adjustment). Faster players reported higher values of sRPE, and players with higher aerobic capacity reported higher levels of fatigue across preseason. Well-being, perceived fatigue and soreness, and sRPE decreased across preseason. Greater match durations were related to higher levels of fatigue during preseason (P < .05). CONCLUSION: The current study highlights the relationship between training load, physical assessments, and playing time. Coaches and practitioners can use physical test data at the start of preseason as an indication of players that report higher sRPE, perceived fatigue, and reduced well-being across preseason, supporting decisions around individualized training prescriptions.

The Day-by-Day Periodization Strategies of a Giro d'Italia Podium Finisher.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe the day-by-day training and racing characteristics in preparation for the Giro d'Italia of 1 world-class road cyclist who achieved a place on the podium in the final general classification of the Giro d'Italia. METHODS: Day-by-day power meter training and racing data of 1 study subject (road cyclist; age 25 y; relative maximum oxygen consumption 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; relative 20-min record power output 6.6 W·kg-1) covering the 152 days leading up to the podium in the Giro d'Italia final general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Daily load, daily volume, and intensity distribution were considered. RESULTS: During training a pattern alternating "hard days" versus "easy days" was observed, as significant amounts of medium or high intensity, or load, were not performed for more than 2 consecutive days This pattern was achieved combining high volume (>4 h) with a significant amount of medium and high intensity within the same training sessions. During training, when training load and intensity increased, the density of "easy days" augmented. In 1-week stage races and the Giro d'Italia, 3 to 8 consecutive days with significant amounts of medium and high intensity were performed. A high number of training sessions with small amounts of medium- and high-intensity volume was observed: 38 days accumulating 3 to 10 minutes at medium intensity and 29 days spending 1 to 9 minutes at high intensity. CONCLUSION: These data provide novel insights about the day-by-day periodization strategies leading to a top 3 in the Giro d'Italia general classification.

Predicting Soccer Players' Fitness Status Through a Machine-Learning Approach.

PURPOSE: The study had 3 purposes: (1) to develop an index using machine-learning techniques to predict the fitness status of soccer players, (2) to explore the index's validity and its relationship with a submaximal run test (SMFT), and (3) to analyze the impact of weekly training load on the index and SMFT outcomes. METHODS: The study involved 50 players from an Italian professional soccer club. External and internal loads were collected during training sessions. Various machine-learning algorithms were assessed for their ability to predict heart-rate responses during the training drills based on external load data. The fitness index, calculated as the difference between actual and predicted heart rates, was correlated with SMFT outcomes. RESULTS: Random forest regression (mean absolute error = 3.8 [0.05]) outperformed the other machine-learning algorithms (extreme gradient boosting and linear regression). Average speed, minutes from the start of the training session, and the work:rest ratio were identified as the most important features. The fitness index displayed a very large correlation (r = .70) with SMFT outcomes, with the highest result observed during possession games and physical conditioning exercises. The study revealed that heart-rate responses from SMFT and the fitness index could diverge throughout the season, suggesting different aspects of fitness. CONCLUSIONS: This study introduces an "invisible monitoring" approach to assess soccer player fitness in the training environment. The developed fitness index, in conjunction with traditional fitness tests, provides a comprehensive understanding of player readiness. This research paves the way for practical applications in soccer, enabling personalized training adjustments and injury prevention.