[Comparison study of the new national standard infant formula and dietary reference intakes 2023].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the relationship between the nutrient limit in new national standard Infant Formula(GB 10765-2021)(New GB)and the corresponding nutrients in Dietary Reference Intakes for China 2023(DRIs 2023), to determine the scientific and reasonable base of each nutrient in New GB, and provide supports for future revision of it. METHODS: Using a data conversion method, the adequate intake(AI) of each nutrient recommended by DRIs 2023 for infants aged 0-6 months and the nutrient limit in the New GB were input into the Excel table. Based on authoritative data on the representative weight of 0-6 month infants and the recommended energy values, the conversion was done, the ratio of the lower limit of each nutrient in New GB and the AI of corresponding nutrient, as well as the ratio of the upper limit of nutrients in New GB and their tolerable upper intake level(UL) were calculated. RESULTS: For most nutrients in New GB for infant formula, the ratio of the lower limit to their AI is close to 1. For those nutrients with a large ratio of the lower limit to AI, or with a ratio of the upper limit to UL were greater than 1, detail analysis was conducted. CONCLUSION: Based on DRIs 2023, the nutrient limit for each nutrient in New GB for infant formula was scientific and reasonable. For some nutrients with a large ratio, more studies should be done in the future to determine whether the limit in National Standard need to be adjusted.

Occurrence of heavy metals coupled with elevated levels of essential elements in chocolates: Health risk assessment.

The presence of contaminants in cacao-derived products, especially in chocolates, has raised concerns regarding food safety and human health. The study assessed the concentration variation of 16 elements in 155 chocolate samples from the US market by cacao content and country of geographic origin. The study further examined the potential health risks posed by toxic metals and determined the contribution of essential elements to the Daily Recommended Intake (DRI), estimated based on an ounce (∼28.4 g) of daily chocolate consumption. Dark chocolates with ≥50 % cacao exhibited consecutively increasing mean levels from 1.2 to 391 µg/kg for U, Tl, Th, As, Pb, Se, Cd, and Co. Similarly, Ni, Sr, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Ca, and Mg had mean concentrations from 4.0 to 1890 mg/kg. Dark chocolates sourced from Central and South America exhibited the highest mean levels of Cd, and South America samples also contained elevated Pb, whereas those from West Africa and Asia had low Cd and Pb, respectively. Cacao contents showed increasingly strong association with Cd, Co, Mn, Sr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Mg (r = 0.60-0.84), and moderately with Se, Fe, As, and Tl (r = 0.35-0.49), indicating these elements are primarily derived from cacao beans. Weak association of cacao contents with Pb, Th, and U levels (r < 0.25), indicates post-harvest contaminations. Hazard Quotient (HQ) > 1 was found only for Cd in 4 dark chocolates, and Hazard Index (HI) > 1 for cumulative risk of Cd, Pb, Ni, As, and U was found in 33 dark chocolates, indicating potential non-carcinogenic risks for 15 kg children but none for 70 kg adults. Dark chocolate also substantially contributed to 47-95 % of the DRI of Cu for children and 50 % for adults. Dark chocolates also provided notable Fe, Mn, Mg, and Zn contributions to the DRI. These essential elements are recognized to reduce the bioavailability of toxic metals such as Cd, Pb, or Ni, thereby potentially lowering associated health risks. This study informs consumers, food industries, and regulatory agencies to target cacao origins or chocolate brands with lower toxic metal contents for food safety and minimizing adverse health effects.

Comparison of Australian Football League Women's athletes match day energy and nutrient intake to recommendations.

AIMS: This cross-sectional observational study quantified Australian Football League Women's athletes' match volume, and compared match-day dietary intakes against recommendations. METHODS: Self-report, direct observation, and fluid measurements determined dietary intake (n = 17, 25 ± 4.5 years, 22.8 ± 1.8 kg/m2) on five home match days (early or late starting). Global positioning system software captured match volume. Linear mixed effects models evaluated differences in early versus late match volume and nutrient intakes. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation. RESULTS: Athletes covered 6712 ± 622 m during matches, with similar numbers of very high-intensity running efforts over equal distances in early and late matches (early vs. late efforts [no.]: 8.5 ± 4.9 vs. 9.5 ± 5.5; distance [m]: 203 ± 127 vs. 212 ± 113). Across all match days, 71% (n = 12) of athletes met their predicted daily energy requirements. However, 82% (n = 14) failed to meet minimum daily carbohydrate recommendations; intake was lower on early compared with late match days (4.7 g/day vs. 5.4 g/kg/day, p = 0.027). On average, no athletes met carbohydrate recommendations in the 2 h prior to a match and only 24% (n = 4) met recommendations during matches. All athletes met post-match carbohydrate and protein requirements. CONCLUSION: Athletes cover large distances during games with frequent bursts of high-intensity running. However, they do not adjust their intake to meet the energy demands of competition, with inadequate fuelling prior to and during matches. These findings emphasise the need for greater athlete education and dietary support to maximise strategic fuelling to optimise athletic performance.

Global guidelines recommendations for dietary sodium and potassium intake.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) cause a significant global health challenge, with unhealthy diets identified as a major risk factor. Sodium and potassium, which are essential minerals for human health, play important roles in various bodily functions, and an imbalance in their intake can have significant health implications, particularly concerning hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. This review compiles dietary sodium and potassium intake recommendations from prominent global health organizations and compares global guidelines to Japan's Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) guidelines. Sodium and potassium intake guidelines from organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA), Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and DRI for Japanese exhibit variations. Compared to other Asian countries, Japan's historically higher sodium goal aligns with Southeast Asia where traditional preserved foods contribute to high sodium intake. Contrarily, Japan's lower potassium goal contrasts with other countries in Asia promoting a diet rich in fruits and vegetables. The ongoing effort by Japan to align with global recommendations reflects a gradation approach considering social habits. While harmonizing international efforts is essential, appreciating regional diversities is paramount through tailoring guidelines to cultural and dietary habit practices. Implementing context-specific guidelines informed by scientific research can contribute to global efforts in promoting healthy diets and reducing the burden of NCDs. Global guidelines that recommended the daily dietary intake goal for sodium and potassium exhibit variations. These disparities are influenced by diverse factors, including cultural dietary habits, socioeconomic status, health priorities, and available scientific research. Each population should follow the recommendations of their region.

The Relationship Between Vitamin D Intake and Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in Young Children: A Meta-Regression to Inform WHO/FAO Vitamin D Intake Recommendations.

BACKGROUND: This work was commissioned by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization to inform their update on the vitamin D requirements for children aged <4 y. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this work was to undertake multilevel and multivariable dose-response modeling of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) to total vitamin D intake in children aged <4 y with the goal of deriving updated vitamin D requirements for young children. METHODS: Systematically identified randomized controlled trials among healthy children from 2 wk up to 3.9 y of age provided with daily vitamin D supplements or vitamin D-fortified foods were included. Linear and nonlinear random effects multilevel meta-regression models with and without covariates were fitted and compared. Interindividual variability was included by simulating the individual serum 25OHD responses. The percentage of individuals reaching set minimal and maximal serum 25OHD thresholds was calculated and used to derive vitamin D requirements. RESULTS: A total of 31 trials with 186 data points from North America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia/Oceania, with latitudes ranging from 61°N to 38°S, and with participants of likely mostly light or medium skin pigmentation, were included. In 29 studies the children received vitamin D supplements and in 2 studies the children received vitamin D-fortified milk with or without supplements. The dose-response relationship between vitamin D intake and serum 25OHD was best fitted with the unadjusted quadratic model. Adding additional covariates, such as age, did not significantly improve the model. At a vitamin D intake of 10 µg/d, 97.3% of the individuals were predicted to achieve a minimal serum 25OHD threshold of 28 nmol/L. At a vitamin D intake of 35 µg/d, 1.4% of the individuals predicted to reach a maximal serum 25OHD threshold of 200 nmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, this paper details the methodological steps taken to derive vitamin D requirements in children aged <4 y, including the addition of an interindividual variability component.

An Affordable and Sustainable Thrifty-Like Meal Plan, FoodRx, That Meets the Recommended Dietary Allowances.

There is considerable controversy as to whether a healthy diet is affordable given recent inflation. In order to determine whether a healthy, climate-friendly sustainable diet can be obtained within the allotments of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), we created and purchased 26 weeks of meal plans designed to meet the EAT-Lancet sustainability guidelines and > 90% of the RDAs for 23 macro/micronutrients for households with at least 2 adults and 1-3 children. We compared the food quantities and cost of a healthy sustainable diet purchased in Los Angeles, 2023, to the Thrifty Food Plan, 2021. We compared the volume of food and cost of basic groceries to those recommended in the Thrifty Food Plan, 2021. The costs of the sustainable diet fell within the 2023 SNAP allotments as long as the average calories required per person did not exceed 2000. The volume of fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seeds were considerably higher for the sustainable diet compared to the Thrifty Food Plan. Given that calorie needs are the determinants of food quantity and costs, the USDA may consider offering supplemental coverage for individuals with higher calorie needs to make healthy eating affordable.

ω-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Status Testing in Humans: A Narrative Review of Commercially Available Options.

There is an increasing body of evidence supporting a link between low intakes of ω-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) and numerous diseases and health conditions. However, few people are achieving the levels of fish/seafood or eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid intake recommended in national and international guidelines. Knowledge of a person's ω-3 LCPUFA status will benefit the interpretation of research results and could be expected to lead to an increased effort to increase intake. Dietary intake survey methods are often used as a surrogate for measuring ω-3 PUFA tissue status and its impact on health and functional outcomes. However, because individuals vary widely in their ability to digest and absorb ω-3 PUFA, analytical testing of biological samples is desirable to accurately evaluate ω-3 PUFA status. Adipose tissue is the reference biospecimen for measuring tissue fatty acids, but less-invasive methods, such as measurements in whole blood or its components (e.g., plasma, serum, red blood cell membranes) or breast milk are often used. Numerous commercial laboratories provide fatty acid testing of blood and breast milk samples by different methods and present their results in a variety of reports such as a full fatty acid profile, ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acid profiles, fatty acid ratios, as well as the Omega-3 Index, the Holman Omega-3 Test, OmegaScore, and OmegaCheck, among others. This narrative review provides information about the different ways to measure ω-3 LCPUFA status (including both dietary assessments and selected commercially available analytical tests of blood and breast milk samples) and discusses evidence linking increased ω-3 LCPUFA intake or status to improved health, focusing on cardiovascular, neurological, pregnancy, and eye health, in support of recommendations to increase ω-3 LCPUFA intake and testing.

Maternal caffeine, coffee and cola drink intake and the risk of gestational diabetes - Kuopio Birth Cohort.

AIMS: Coffee intake is associated with a decreased risk of type 2 diabetes among non-pregnant people. We aimed to investigate the association between caffeine, coffee and cola drink intake in early pregnancy and the risk of gestational diabetes (GDM). METHODS: Kuopio Birth Cohort (KuBiCo) is a prospective cohort study including pregnant women who were followed at the prenatal clinics in outpatient healthcare centers and gave birth in Kuopio University Hospital, Finland (n=2214). Maternal diet during the first trimester of pregnancy was assessed using a 160-item food frequency questionnaire. GDM was diagnosed by oral glucose tolerance test according to the Finnish national guidelines mainly between 24 and 28 gestational weeks. RESULTS: Women with moderate coffee intake in the first trimester were less likely diagnosed with GDM than women without coffee intake in an age-adjusted model (OR 0.87; 95% CI 0.76-0.99; p = 0.03), but the association was attenuated in multi-adjusted models (p = 0.11). No association was found between caffeine intake and GDM. One third (32.4%) of pregnant women consumed caffeine over the recommendation (> 200 mg/d). Women who consumed cola drinks more than the median (33.3 mL/d) had an increased risk of GDM (OR 1.29; 95% CI 1.02-1.63, p = 0.037) in multi-adjusted model compared to those who consumed less. CONCLUSIONS: Caffeine intake during the first trimester of pregnancy was not associated with the risk of GDM but a minor non-significant decrease was seen with moderate coffee intake. Although the average consumption of cola drinks was low in the KuBiCo cohort, higher consumption was associated with an increased risk of GDM. Further studies are needed to evaluate the safe amount of coffee during pregnancy, since the recommended caffeine intake was exceeded in almost half of the coffee drinkers.

Women in Canada are consuming above the upper intake level of folic acid but few are meeting dietary choline recommendations in the second trimester of pregnancy: data from the CHILD cohort study.

There is concern that during a low-risk pregnancy, women are consuming more than recommended (400 µg/day) supplemental folic acid and may not meet recommendations for other nutrients. The objective of this study was to determine folic acid supplement use and dietary folate intakes in the second trimester (week 18) of pregnancy in women (n = 2996) in the Canadian CHILD cohort study. Vitamin B12 and choline intakes were also assessed because they are metabolically related to folate. The majority of participants (71.6%) were consuming a daily prenatal supplement. Twenty-eight percent of women (n = 847) reported consuming a folic acid supplement and of these women, 45.3% had daily supplemental folic acid intakes above the upper intake level (UL; 1000 µg/day). Daily dietary folate intakes were (mean (SD)) 575 (235) DFE µg/day. In contrast, only 24.8% of women met the dietary choline adequate intake (AI) recommendation (AI ≥ 450 mg/day) with a mean (SD) intake of 375 (151) mg/day. Further understanding of the impact of supplemental folic acid intake above the UL and low choline intake during pregnancy requires further investigation.

Adequacy of the "pocket formulas" for measuring total energy expenditure in healthy women compared with the new DRI equation: A doubly labeled water study.

OBJECTIVES: "Pocket formulas" are practical alternatives for calculating an individual's total energy expenditure (TEE). Typically, more sophisticated predictive equations are used, such as the new equations proposed in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI). Nevertheless, these new equations necessitate estimating physical activity levels (PALs). The aim of this study was to compare the use of pocket formulas (kcal/kg of body weight) with the new predictive equations for energy expenditure proposed by the DRI (2023) in healthy women and with the doubly labeled water (DLW) method to predict TEE. METHODS: The TEEs of healthy adult women were measured by DLW and calculated using the pocket formulas (× 20, × 25, × 30, and × 35 kcal/kg of body weight) and the new DRI equation. PALs by triaxial accelerometers were also collected. RESULTS: The study included 55 women. For the entire sample, the × 30 pocket formula had the lowest bias (-6%; limits of agreement [LOAs]: -39.8; 27.5; root mean square error: 373.4) and the highest precision (42%). The pocket formulas showed reasonable agreement in the different body mass index categories compared with the results found by the 2023 DRI proposal. For individuals with normal weight, the agreement was × 35 kcal/kg: bias (%) = -4.8; LoA = -41.5; 31.8, with overweight, it was × 30 kcal/kg: bias (%) = -2.2; LoA = -25.1; 20.6, and with obesity, it was × 30 kcal/kg: bias (%) = 4.2; LoA = -21.1; 29.4. CONCLUSION: Pocket formulas provide a reasonable agreement with TEE in healthy, sedentary, or low-active adult women, which may be a more simplistic strategy when there is no PAL data for calculating the DRI equations.

Nitrogen Balance at the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Protein in Minimally Active Male Vegans.

Vegan diets have gained popularity in recent years for reasons including health benefits and concerns for animal welfare. Although these diets are considered to be nutritionally adequate, questions remain over whether the current protein recommendation (0.8 g/kg/d) is sufficient. Protein status is determined through a nitrogen balance analysis when the protein content of the diet is known. A negative balance indicates a catabolic state, and a positive nitrogen balance indicates an anabolic state. In healthy adults, nitrogen equilibrium is the expectation reflecting the net synthesis and breakdown of proteins. Currently, there are no known studies measuring nitrogen balance in strict vegan men fed the protein requirement. Eighteen minimally active vegan men received a 5-day eucaloric diet (protein content: 0.8 g/kg/d). On day five, 24 h urine was collected for nitrogen analysis. Both the mean absolute nitrogen balance (-1.38 ± 1.22 g/d) and the mean relative nitrogen balance (-18.60 ± 16.96 mg/kg/d) were significantly lower than zero (equilibrium) (p < 0.001). There were no correlations seen between nitrogen balance and age, years as vegan, or fat-free mass. Consuming 0.8 g/kg/d of protein is not adequate to produce nitrogen balance in men adhering to typical strict vegan diets for at least one year.

Foundational Nutrition: Implications for Human Health.

Human nutrition, and what can be considered "ideal" nutrition, is a complex, multi-faceted topic which many researchers and practitioners deliberate. While some attest that basic human nutrition is relatively understood, it is undeniable that a global nutritional problem persists. Many countries struggle with malnutrition or caloric deficits, while others encounter difficulties with caloric overconsumption and micronutrient deficiencies. A multitude of factors contribute to this global problem. Limitations to the current scope of the recommended daily allowances (RDAs) and dietary reference intakes (DRIs), changes in soil quality, and reductions in nutrient density are just a few of these factors. In this article, we propose a new, working approach towards human nutrition designated "Foundational Nutrition". This nutritional lens combines a whole food approach in conjunction with micronutrients and other nutrients critical for optimal human health with special consideration given to the human gut microbiome and overall gut health. Together, this a synergistic approach which addresses vital components in nutrition that enhances the bioavailability of nutrients and to potentiate a bioactive effect.

Dietary Energy and Nutrient Intake of Healthy Pre-School Children in Hungary.

Diet in the early years of life may influence the development of chronic diseases later on. The aim of the present study was to investigate the dietary intake of 2- to 6-year-old Hungarian children. In 2013 and subsequently in 2016, cross-sectional surveys were conducted among parents of healthy children attending kindergarten in Hungary. We used a three-day food diary to record quantitative data of all the nutrients consumed by the children on two working days and one weekend day. The dietary intakes were compared to both the Hungarian recommended dietary allowances and the European Food Safety Authority recommendations. The nutritional data of altogether 186 children in 2013 and 556 children in 2016 were analyzed. The total energy and carbohydrate intake was appropriate. We observed high sugar intake in every fifth child. Protein, fat and cholesterol intake, as well as the intake of sodium, potassium and phosphorus, were high. The consumption of calcium and vitamin D was low. Water consumption was not satisfying. The present results underline the need for interventions starting early in life in order to ameliorate nutrient intake during childhood, possibly impacting long-term health outcomes.

Use of granules and free salts for Fe and Zn fortification of leafy vegetables: Improvements in trace element bioaccessibility and fulfillment of Dietary Reference Intakes.

BACKGROUND: Leafy vegetables represent an excellent dietary source of trace elements such as Fe and Zn. Nevertheless, Fe and Zn bioaccessibility can lessen due to a high concentration of anti-nutritional compounds. The encapsulation of Fe and Zn salts as granules could be used to fortify these leafy vegetables. METHOD: Three leafy vegetables, spinach, Swiss chard and Ethiopian mustard were fortified with iron sulfate and zinc sulfate as granules and free salts in order to test the improvements in the bioaccessibility and fulfillments of DRIs. Fe and Zn granules were prepared in a fluidized bed granulator. A probabilistic analysis was performed, using experimental data, to assess bioaccessible intake and fulfillments of DRIs in European populations. RESULTS: Fe contents ranged between 4.8 mg/100 g of Ethiopian mustard to 157.4 mg/100 g of spinach. Fe and Zn bioaccessibility percentages were low for Swiss chard and spinach without fortification. Fortification with granules improved Fe bioaccessibility of these latter vegetables (196 and 223 mg/100 g). Zn contents in samples without fortification ranged between 2.3 mg/100 g for Ethiopian mustard and 7.4 mg/100 g for spinach. Zn fortification as granules improved Zn bioaccessibility for the three vegetables studied. Thus, Zn bioccessible concentrations ranged between 17.4 and 108 mg/100 g for the solubility assay and between 5.9 and 31.1 mg/100 g for the dialyzability assay. Besides, the probability analysis showed that fortification had a better performance in meeting DRIs for those populations with higher consumption levels of leafy vegetables. CONCLUSIONS: The probability analysis demonstrated that fortification can be a suitable strategy to meet DRIs for both trace elements, which was especially remarkable for Fe. Fortification with granule was more effective in most the cases, although for Ethiopian mustard, free salt of Fe showed a better performance.

Adverse Effects on the Thyroid of Chinese Pregnant Women Exposed to Long-Term Iodine Excess: Optimal and Safe Tolerable Upper Intake Levels of Iodine.

Ensuring optimal iodine nutrition in pregnant women is a global public health concern. However, there is no direct data on safe tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for pregnant women. A cross-sectional study was performed to determine the ULs of pregnant women. A total of 744 pregnant women were enrolled in this study. The median (IQR) urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in pregnant women was 150.2 (87.6, 268.0) µg/L, and the urinary iodine excretion (UIE) over 24 h was 204.2 (116.0, 387.0) µg/day. Compared with those with a UIE figure of between 150-250 µg/day, the reference group, the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction was 5.7 times higher (95%CI: 1.7, 19.2) in pregnant women with a UIE figure of between 450-550 µg/day, and 3.9 times higher (95%CI: 1.5, 10.3) in pregnant women with a UIE figure of ≥550 µg/day. Compared with an estimated iodine intake (EII) of between 100-200 µg/day, the reference group, the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction was 4.3 times higher (95%CI: 1.3, 14.4) in pregnant women with a UIE figure of between 500-600 µg/day, and 3.6 times higher (95%CI: 1.5, 8.9) in pregnant women with UIE of ≥600 µg/day. In general, our cross-sectional study found that excessive iodine intake during pregnancy appears to directly increase the risk of thyroid dysfunction. Avoiding chronic iodine intakes of 500 µg/day or higher or having a UIE figure of ≥450 µg/day is recommended for pregnant women in China.

The Urinary Excretion of Magnesium as an Effective Magnesium Deficiency State Indicator: A Controlled Intervention Trial.

With the western influence in our diets, food consumption has changed, and our magnesium (Mg) intake is no longer optimal. Serum Mg (S-Mg) level is currently used as an indicator of Mg deficiency and is strictly regulated via compensatory mechanisms. It is believed that a 24-h urine collection can be used to evaluate potential Mg deficiency. This study aimed to assess whether Mg deficiency state as found in urine Mg (U-Mg) excretion and improving such deficiency with a diet that meets the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of Mg for 15 d. Healthy Japanese women were recruited for Study 1 (n=22) and Study 2 (n=10). Study 1 was 1-d balance test, where fasting blood and 24-h urine samples were collected. Study 2 was 15-d diet load test, where fasting blood (days 1, 7, and 15) and 24-h urine (odd days) were collected. All test meals were made certain to have met the RDA for Mg for women in their 20s. In Studies 1 and 2, S-Mg was within the normal range. In Study 1, U-Mg excretion was 67.7±17.0 mg/d, with a large dispersion. In Study 2, U-Mg excretion on days 7 and 15 was significantly higher than on day 1, but have no significant differences in U-Mg excretion between days 7-15. U-Mg excretion can be a valuable indicator to evaluate Mg state. In young women, improvements in Mg deficient state were observed after 7-15 d of taking meals that met the RDAs of Mg.

Re-exploration of dietary iodine intake in Chinese adult males using a modified iodine balance study.

There is still controversy about optimal dietary iodine intake as the Universal Salt Iodization policy enforcement in China. A modified iodine balance study was thus conducted to explore the suitable iodine intake in Chinese adult males using the iodine overflow hypothesis. In this study, thirty-eight apparently healthy males (19·1 (sd 0·6) years) were recruited and provided with designed diets. After the 14-d iodine depletion, daily iodine intake gradually increased in the 30-d iodine supplementation, consisting of six stages and each of 5 d. All foods and excreta (urine, faeces) were collected to examine daily iodine intake, iodine excretion and the changes of iodine increment in relation to those values at stage 1. The dose-response associations of iodine intake increment with excretion increment were fitted by the mixed effects models, as well as with retention increment. Daily iodine intake and excretion were 16·3 and 54·3 µg/d at stage 1, and iodine intake increment increased from 11·2 µg/d at stage 2 to 118·0 µg/d at stage 6, while excretion increment elevated from 21·5 to 95·0 µg/d. A zero iodine balance was dynamically achieved as 48·0 µg/d of iodine intake. The estimated average requirement and recommended nutrient intake were severally 48·0 and 67·2 µg/d, which could be corresponded to a daily iodine intake of 0·74 and 1·04 µg/kg per d. The results of our study indicate that roughly half of current iodine intakes recommendation could be enough in Chinese adult males, which would be beneficial for the revision of dietary reference intakes.

The Effect of a Vegan Diet on the Coverage of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Iodine among People from Poland.

The aim of this research was to estimate the effect of a vegan diet on the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) coverage for iodine in people from Poland. It was hypothesized that the problem of iodine deficiency is a concern, especially among vegans. The survey study was conducted in the years 2021-2022 on 2200 people aged 18-80 with omnivore and vegan diets. The exclusion criteria in the study were pregnancy and lactation. The study found that the coverage of RDA for iodine among people with a vegan diet was lower than among people with an omnivore diet (p < 0.05); 90% of the participants with a vegan diet had an iodine intake below 150 µg/day. Plant-based dairy and meat analogs were consumed by vegans frequently and in large portions, but none were fortified with iodine. It was found that iodized salt was each group's primary source of iodine. However, it was observed that the iodine supply from this source was limited among vegans, especially in female subjects, who consumed less salt and smaller portions of meals. That is why consideration should be given to the iodine fortification of plant-based foods commonly consumed by vegans.