Cloning and functional characterization of the legumin A gene (EuLEGA) from Eucommia ulmoides Oliver.

Legumin A is a seed storage protein that provides nutrients for seed germination. The purpose of this study was to describe the structure and expression pattern of the EuLEGA gene in Eucommia ulmoides Oliver (E. ulmoides) and to infer its functional role. The 1287 bp coding sequence of the EuLEGA CDS of the EuLEGA gene, encoding a protein containing 428 amino acid residues, was cloned. The structure predicted that the protein belonged to the RmlC (deoxythymidine diphosphates, dTDP)-4-dehydrorhamnose 3,5-epimerase)-like cupin conserved domain family, which contains both RmlC, a key enzyme for the synthesis of rhamnose and legumin A. The overexpression (OE) vector of the EuLEGA gene was constructed and genetically transformed into tobacco and E. ulmoides; the RNA interference (RNAi) vector of the EuLEGA gene was constructed and genetically transformed into E. ulmoides; and the contents of legumin A and rhamnose were detected. The results showed that the EuLEGA gene could significantly increase the content of legumin A in transgenic tobacco leaves and transgenic E. ulmoides regenerative buds, and the OE of this gene in E. ulmoides could promote an increase in rhamnose content. RNAi caused a significant decrease in the legumin A content in the regenerated buds of E. ulmoides. These was a significant increase in legumin A in the transgenic tobacco seeds, and these results indicate that the expression of the EuLEGA gene is closely related to the accumulation of legumin A. Subcellular localization studies revealed that EuLEGA is localized to the cytoplasm with the vacuolar membrane. Analysis of the EuLEGA gene expression data revealed that the expression level of the EuLEGA gene in the samaras was significantly greater than that in the leaves and stems. In addition, the study also demonstrated that GA3 can upregulate the expression levels of the EuLEGA gene, while ABA and MeJA can downregulate its expression levels.

Associations between various markers of intestinal barrier and immune function after a high-intensity exercise challenge.

Strenuous exercise can result in disruption of intestinal barrier function and occurrence of gastrointestinal symptoms. The aim of this exploratory study was to elucidate systemic effects of increased intestinal permeability after high-intensity exercise. Forty-one endurance-trained subjects performed a 60-min treadmill run at 80% VO2max. Small intestinal permeability was measured as urinary excretion ratio of lactulose/rhamnose (L/R). Blood, saliva and feces were analyzed for gut barrier and immune-related biomarkers. The exercise challenge increased several markers of intestinal barrier disruption, immune function and oxidative stress. We found a negative correlation between L/R ratio and uric acid (r = -0.480), as well as a positive correlation between the L/R ratio and fecal chromogranin A in male participants (r = 0.555). No significant correlations were found between any of the markers and gastrointestinal symptoms, however, perceived exertion correlated with the combination of IL-6, IL-10 and salivary cortisol (r = 0.492). The lack of correlation between intestinal permeability and gastrointestinal symptoms could be due to minor symptoms experienced in lab settings compared to real-life competitions. The correlation between L/R ratio and uric acid might imply a barrier-protective effect of uric acid, and inflammatory processes due to strenuous exercise seem to play an important role regarding physical exhaustion.

Application of fucosylation inhibitors for production of afucosylated antibody.

Fucosylation is an important quality attribute for therapeutic antibodies. Afucosylated antibodies exhibit higher therapeutic efficacies than their fucosylated counterparts through antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) mechanism. Since higher potency is beneficial in reducing dose or duration of the treatment, afucosylated antibodies have attracted a great deal of interest in biotherapeutics development. In this study, novel small molecules GDP-D-Rhamnose and its derivatives (Ac-GDP-D-Rhamnose and rhamnose sodium phosphate) were synthesized to inhibit the enzyme in the GDP-fucose synthesis pathway. Addition of these compounds into cell culture increased antibody afucosylation levels in a dose-dependent manner and had no significant impact on other protein quality attributes. A novel and effective mechanism to generate afucosylated antibody is demonstrated for biologics discovery, analytical method development, process development, and other applications.

Novel Lactobacillaceae strains and consortia to produce propionate-containing fermentates as biopreservatives.

Biopreservation refers to the use of natural or controlled microbial single strains or consortia, and/or their metabolites such as short-chain carboxylic acids (SCCA), to improve the shelf-life of foods. This study aimed at establishing a novel Lactobacillaceae-driven bioprocess that led to the production of the SCCA propionate through the cross-feeding on 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PD) derived from the deoxyhexoses rhamnose or fucose. When grown as single cultures in Hungate tubes, strains of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus preferred fucose over rhamnose and produced 1,2-PD in addition to lactate, acetate, and formate, while Limosilactobacillus reuteri metabolized 1,2-PD into propionate, propanol and propanal. Loigolactobacillus coryniformis used fucose to produce 1,2-PD and only formed propionate when supplied with 1,2-PD. Fermentates collected from batch fermentations in bioreactor using two-strain consortia (L. rhamnosus and L. reuteri) or fed-batch fermentations of single strain cultures of L. coryniformis with rhamnose contained mixtures of SCCA consisting of mainly lactate and acetate and also propionate. Synthetic mixtures that contained SCCA at concentrations present in the fermentates were more antimicrobial against Salmonella enterica if propionate was present. Together, this study (i) demonstrates the potential of single strains and two-strain consortia to produce propionate in the presence of deoxyhexoses extending the fermentation metabolite profile of Lactobacillaceae, and (ii) emphasizes the potential of applying propionate-containing fermentates as biopreservatives.

Impact of vitamin B12 on rhamnose metabolism, stress defense and in-vitro virulence of Listeria monocytogenes.

Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative anaerobe which can cause a severe food-borne infection known as listeriosis. L. monocytogenes is capable of utilizing various nutrient sources including rhamnose, a naturally occurring deoxy sugar abundant in foods. L. monocytogenes can degrade rhamnose into lactate, acetate and 1,2-propanediol. Our previous study showed that addition of vitamin B12 stimulated anaerobic growth of L. monocytogenes on rhamnose due to the activation of bacterial microcompartments for 1,2-propanediol utilization (pdu BMC) with concomitant production of propionate and propanol. Notably, anaerobic 1,2-propanediol metabolism has been linked to virulence of enteric pathogens including Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes. In this study we investigated the impact of B12 and BMC activation on i) aerobic and anerobic growth of L. monocytogenes on rhamnose and ii) the level of virulence. We observed B12-induced pdu BMC activation and growth stimulation only in anaerobically grown cells. Comparative Caco-2 virulence assays showed that these pdu BMC-induced cells have significantly higher translocation efficiency compared to non-induced cells (anaerobic growth without B12; aerobic growth with or without B12), while adhesion and invasion capacity is similar for all cells. Comparative proteome analysis showed specific and overlapping responses linked to metabolic shifts, activation of stress defense proteins and virulence factors, with RNA polymerase sigma factor SigL, teichoic acid export ATP-binding protein TagH, DNA repair and protection proteins, RadA and DPS, and glutathione synthase GshAB, previously linked to activation of virulence response in L. monocytogenes, uniquely upregulated in anaerobically rhamnose grown pdu-induced cells. Our results shed light on possible effects of B12 on L. monocytogenes competitive fitness and virulence activation when utilizing rhamnose in anaerobic conditions encountered during transmission and the human intestine.

Molecular mechanisms underlying the structural diversity of rhamnose-rich cell wall polysaccharides in lactococci.

In Gram-positive bacteria, cell wall polysaccharides (CWPS) play critical roles in bacterial cell wall homeostasis and bacterial interactions with their immediate surroundings. In lactococci, CWPS consist of two components: a conserved rhamnan embedded in the peptidoglycan layer and a surface-exposed polysaccharide pellicle (PSP), which are linked together to form a large rhamnose-rich CWPS (Rha-CWPS). PSP, whose structure varies from strain to strain, is a receptor for many bacteriophages infecting lactococci. Here, we examined the first two steps of PSP biosynthesis, using in vitro enzymatic tests with lipid acceptor substrates combined with LC-MS analysis, AlfaFold2 modeling of protein 3D-structure, complementation experiments, and phage assays. We show that the PSP repeat unit is assembled on an undecaprenyl-monophosphate (C55P) lipid intermediate. Synthesis is initiated by the WpsA/WpsB complex with GlcNAc-P-C55 synthase activity and the PSP precursor GlcNAc-P-C55 is then elongated by specific glycosyltransferases that vary among lactococcal strains, resulting in PSPs with diverse structures. Also, we engineered the PSP biosynthesis pathway in lactococci to obtain a chimeric PSP structure, confirming the predicted glycosyltransferase specificities. This enabled us to highlight the importance of a single sugar residue of the PSP repeat unit in phage recognition. In conclusion, our results support a novel pathway for PSP biosynthesis on a lipid-monophosphate intermediate as an extracellular modification of rhamnan, unveiling an assembly machinery for complex Rha-CWPS with structural diversity in lactococci.

Acquired stress resilience through bacteria-to-nematode interdomain horizontal gene transfer.

Natural selection drives the acquisition of organismal resilience traits to protect against adverse environments. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is an important evolutionary mechanism for the acquisition of novel traits, including metazoan acquisitions in immunity, metabolic, and reproduction function via interdomain HGT (iHGT) from bacteria. Here, we report that the nematode gene rml-3 has been acquired by iHGT from bacteria and that it enables exoskeleton resilience and protection against environmental toxins in Caenorhabditis elegans. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that diverse nematode RML-3 proteins form a single monophyletic clade most similar to bacterial enzymes that biosynthesize L-rhamnose, a cell-wall polysaccharide component. C. elegans rml-3 is highly expressed during larval development and upregulated in developing seam cells upon heat stress and during the stress-resistant dauer stage. rml-3 deficiency impairs cuticle integrity, barrier functions, and nematode stress resilience, phenotypes that can be rescued by exogenous L-rhamnose. We propose that interdomain HGT of an ancient bacterial rml-3 homolog has enabled L-rhamnose biosynthesis in nematodes, facilitating cuticle integrity and organismal resilience to environmental stressors during evolution. These findings highlight a remarkable contribution of iHGT on metazoan evolution conferred by the domestication of a bacterial gene.

Cell wall polysaccharides of streptococci: A genetic and structural perspective.

The Streptococcus genus comprises both commensal and pathogenic species. Additionally, Streptococcus thermophilus is exploited in fermented foods and in probiotic preparations. The ecological and metabolic diversity of members of this genus is matched by the complex range of cell wall polysaccharides that they present on their cell surfaces. These glycopolymers facilitate their interactions and environmental adaptation. Here, current knowledge on the genetic and compositional diversity of streptococcal cell wall polysaccharides including rhamnose-glucose polysaccharides, exopolysaccharides and teichoic acids is discussed. Furthermore, the species-specific cell wall polysaccharide combinations and specifically highlighting the presence of rhamnose-glucose polysaccharides in certain species, which are replaced by teichoic acids in other species. This review highlights model pathogenic and non-pathogenic species for which there is considerable information regarding cell wall polysaccharide composition, structure and genetic information. These serve as foundations to predict and focus research efforts in other streptococcal species for which such data currently does not exist.

Lipopolysaccharide of Legionella pneumophila Serogroup 1 Facilitates Interaction with Host Cells.

Legionella pneumophila is the primary causative agent of Legionnaires' disease. The mutant-type strain interrupted in the ORF7 gene region responsible for the lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis of the L. pneumophila strain Heysham-1, lacking the O-acetyl groups attached to the rhamnose of the core part, showed a higher surface polarity compared with the wild-type strain. The measurement of excitation energy transfer between fluorophores located on the surface of bacteria and eukaryotic cells showed that, at an early stage of interaction with host cells, the mutant exhibited weaker interactions with Acanthamoeba castellanii cells and THP-1-derived macrophages. The mutant displayed reduced adherence to macrophages but enhanced adherence to A. castellanii, suggesting that the O-acetyl group of the LPS core region plays a crucial role in facilitating interaction with macrophages. The lack of core rhamnose O-acetyl groups made it easier for the bacteria to multiply in amoebae and macrophages. The mutant induced TNF-α production more strongly compared with the wild-type strain. The mutant synthesized twice as many ceramides Cer(t34:0) and Cer(t38:0) than the wild-type strain. The study showed that the internal sugars of the LPS core region of L. pneumophila sg 1 can interact with eukaryotic cell surface receptors and mediate in contacting and attaching bacteria to host cells as well as modulating the immune response to infection.

[Characterization and application of several lysis cassettes].

Lysis is a common functional module in synthetic biology and is widely used in genetic circuit design. Lysis could be achieved by inducing expression of lysis cassettes originated from phages. However, detailed characterization of lysis cassettes hasn't been reported yet. Here, we first adopted arabinose- and rhamnose-inducible systems to develop inducible expression of five lysis cassettes (S105, A52G, C51S S76C, LKD, LUZ) in Escherichia coli Top10. By measuring OD600, we characterized the lysis behavior of strains harboring different lysis cassettes. These strains were harvested at different growth stages, induced with different concentrations of chemical inducers, or contained plasmids with different copy numbers. We found that although all five lysis cassettes could induce bacterial lysis in Top10, lysis behaviors differed a lot at various conditions. We further found that due to the difference in background expression levels between strain Top10 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, it was hard to construct inducible lysis systems in strain PAO1. The lysis cassette controlled by rhamnose-inducible system was finally inserted into the chromosome of strain PAO1 to construct lysis strains after careful screen. The results indicated that LUZ and LKD were more effective in strain PAO1 than S105, A52G and C51S S76C. At last, we constructed an engineered bacteria Q16 using an optogenetic module BphS and the lysis cassette LUZ. The engineered strain was capable of adhering to target surface and achieving light-induced lysis by tuning the strength of ribosome binding sites (RBSs), showing great potential in surface modification.

Functional characterization of a Flavonol 3-O-rhamnosyltransferase and two UDP-rhamnose synthases from Hypericum monogynum.

Rhamnosyltransferase (RT) and rhamnose synthase (Rhs) are the key enzymes that are responsible for the biosynthesis of rhamnosides and UDP-l-rhamnose (UDP-Rha) in plants, respectively. How to discover such enzymes efficiently for use is still a problem to be solved. Here, we identified HmF3RT, HmRhs1, and HmRhs2 from Hypericum monogynum, which is abundant in flavonol rhamnosides, with the help of a full-length and high throughput transcriptome sequencing platform. HmF3RT could regiospecifically transfer the rhamnose moiety of UDP-Rha onto the 3-OH position of flavonols and has weakly catalytic for UDP-xylose (UDP-Xyl) and UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc). HmF3RT showed well quercetin substrate affinity and high catalytic efficiency with Km of 5.14 µM and kcat/Km of 2.21 × 105 S-1 M-1, respectively. Docking, dynamic simulation, and mutagenesis studies revealed that V129, D372, and N373 are critical residues for the activity and sugar donor recognition of HmF3RT, mutant V129A, and V129T greatly enhance the conversion rate of catalytic flavonol glucosides. HmRhs1 and HmRhs2 convert UDP-Glc to UDP-Rha, which could be further used by HmF3RT. The HmF3RT and HmRhs1 co-expressed strain RTS1 could produce quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside (quercitrin), kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside (afzelin), and myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside (myricitrin) at yields of 85.1, 110.7, and 77.6 mg L-1, respectively. It would provide a valuable reference for establishing a better and more efficient biocatalyst for preparing bioactive flavonol rhamnosides by identifying HmF3RT and HmRhs.

Genetic dissection of monosaccharides contents in rice whole grain using genome-wide association study.

The simplest form of carbohydrates are monosaccharides which are the building blocks for the synthesis of polymers or complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharide contents of 197 rice accessions were quantified by HPAEC-PAD in rice (Oryza sativa L.) whole grain (RWG). A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was carried out using 33,812 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to identify corresponding genomic regions influencing neutral monosaccharides contents. In total, 49 GWAS signals contained in 17 genomic regions (quantitative trait loci [QTLs]) on seven chromosomes of rice were determined to be associated with monosaccharides contents of whole grain. The QTLs were found for fucose (1), mannose (1), xylose (2), arabinose (2), galactose (4), and rhamnose (7) contents, all of which are novel. Based on co-location of annotated rice genes in the vicinity of GWAS signals, the constituents of the whole grain were associated with the following candidate genes: arabinose content with α-N-arabinofuranosidase, pectinesterase inhibitor, and glucosamine-fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase 1; xylose content with ZOS1-10 (a C2H2 zinc finger transcription factor [TF]); mannose content with aldose 1-epimerase-like protein and a MYB family TF; galactose content with a GT8 family member (galacturonosyltransferase-like 3), a GRAS family TF, and a GH16 family member (xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase xyloglucan 23); fucose content with gibberellin 20 oxidase and a lysine-rich arabinogalactan protein 19, and finally rhamnose content with myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthase, UDP-arabinopyranose mutase, and COBRA-like protein precursor. The results of this study should improve our understanding of the genetic basis of the factors that might be involved in the biosynthesis, regulation, and turnover of monosaccharides in RWG, aiming to enhance the nutritional value of rice grain and impact the related industries.

Increasing production of spinosad in Saccharopolyspora spinosa by metabolic engineering.

Spinosad, a combination of spinosyn A and D produced by Saccharopolyspora spinosa, is a highly efficient pesticide. There has been a considerable interest in the improvement of spinosad production because of a low yield achieved by wild-type S. spinosa. In this study, we designed and constructed a pIBR-SPN vector. pIBR-SPN is an integrative vector that can be used to introduce foreign genes into the chromosome of S. spinosa. Different combinations of genes encoding forasamine and rhamnose were synthesized and used for the construction of different recombinant plasmids. The following recombinant strains were developed: S. spinosa pIBR-SPN (only the vector), S. spinosa pIBR-SPN F (forosamine genes), S. spinosa pIBR-SPN R (rhamnose genes), S. spinosa pIBR-SPN FR (forosamine and rhamnose genes), S. spinosa pIBR-SPN FRS (forosamine, rhamnose, and SAM [S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthetase] genes), and S. spinosa MUV pIBR-SPN FR. Among these recombinant strains, S. spinosa pIBR-SPN FR produced 1394 ± 163 mg/L spinosad, which was 13-fold higher than the wild-type. S. spinosa MUV pIBR-SPN FR produced 1897 (±129) mg/L spinosad, which was seven-fold higher than S. spinosa MUV and 17-fold higher than the wild-type strain.

Rhamnose Displays an Anti-Obesity Effect Through Stimulation of Adipose Dopamine Receptors and Thermogenesis.

The imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure leads to the prevalence of obesity worldwide. A strategy to simultaneously limit energy intake and promote energy expenditure would be an important new obesity treatment. Here, we identified rhamnose as a nonnutritive sweetener to promote adipose thermogenesis and energy expenditure. Rhamnose promotes cAMP production and PKA activation through dopamine receptor D1 in adipose tissue. As a result, rhamnose administration promotes UCP1-dependent thermogenesis and ameliorates obesity in mice. Thus, we have demonstrated a rhamnose-dopamine receptor D1-PKA axis critical for thermogenesis, and that rhamnose may have a role in therapeutic molecular diets against obesity.

Crystal Structure of l-2,4-Diketo-3-deoxyrhamnonate Hydrolase Involved in the Nonphosphorylated l-Rhamnose Pathway from Bacteria.

2,4-Diketo-3-deoxy-l-rhamnonate (L-DKDR) hydrolase (LRA6) catalyzes the hydrolysis reaction of L-DKDR to pyruvate and l-lactate in the nonphosphorylated l-rhamnose pathway from bacteria and belongs to the fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (FAH) superfamily. Most of the members of the FAH superfamily are involved in the microbial degradation of aromatic substances and share low sequence similarities with LRA6, by which the underlying catalytic mechanism remains unknown at the atomic level. We herein elucidated for the first time the crystal structures of LRA6 from Sphingomonas sp. without a ligand and in complex with pyruvate, in which a magnesium ion was coordinated with three acidic residues in the catalytic center. Structural, biochemical, and phylogenetic analyses suggested that LRA6 is a close but distinct subfamily of the fumarylpyruvate hydrolase (FPH) subfamily, and amino acid residues at equivalent position to 84 in LRA6 are related to different substrate specificities between them (Leu84 and Arg86 in LRA6 and FPH, respectively). Structural transition induced upon the binding of pyruvate was observed within a lid-like region, by which a glutamate-histidine dyad that is critical for catalysis was arranged sufficiently close to the ligand. Among several hydroxylpyruvates (2,4-diketo-5-hydroxycarboxylates), L-DKDR with a C6 methyl group was the best substrate for LRA6, conforming to the physiological role. Significant activity was also detected in acylpyruvate including acetylpyruvate. The structural analysis presented herein provides a more detailed understanding of the molecular evolution and physiological role of the FAH superfamily enzymes (e.g., the FAH like-enzyme involved in the mammalian l-fucose pathway).

Naringinase Biosynthesis by Aspergillus niger on an Optimized Medium Containing Red Grapefruit Albedo.

This study aimed to develop a method of naringinase biosynthesis by Aspergillus niger KMS on an optimized culture medium. The concentration of the six medium components in shake flasks was optimized by the Box and Wilson factor gradient method. Naringinase's substrate, naringin, powdered albedo, flavedo, and red grapefruit segment membranes were used to stimulate naringinase biosynthesis. Rhamnose was chosen as the carbon source, while the nitrogen source was yeast extract and sodium nitrate. Naringinase biosynthesis was most favorable in the culture medium with the following composition (g 100 mL): 3.332-NaNO3; 3.427-yeast extract; 0.184-KH2PO4; 0.855-red grapefruit albedo; 0.168-naringin; 2.789-rhamnose. The obtained Aspergillus niger KMS culture fluid was concentrated, thereby precipitating the protein. As a result, a naringinase preparation with high activity, equal to 816 µmol × min-1 × g-1, was obtained.

Biodegradation of rubber in cultures of Rhodococcus rhodochrous and by its enzyme latex clearing protein.

The biodegradation of rubber materials is considered as a sustainable recycling alternative, highlighting the use of microorganisms and enzymes in oxidative processes of natural rubber. Currently, the main challenge is the treatment of rubber materials such as waste tyres, where the mixture of rubber polymers with different additives and the cross-linked structure obtained due to the vulcanisation process positions them as highly persistent materials. This study characterises the degradation of different rubber-containing substrates in in vivo and in vitro processes using the bacterium Rhodococcus rhodochrous and the oxygenase latex clearing protein (Lcp) from the same strain. For the first time, the degradation of polyisoprene particles in liquid cultures of R. rhodochrous was analysed, obtaining up to 19.32% mass loss of the polymer when using it as the only carbon source. Scanning electron microscopy analysis demonstrated surface alteration of pure polyisoprene and vulcanised rubber particles after 2 weeks of incubation. The enzyme LcpRR was produced in bioreactors under rhamnose induction and its activity characterised in oxygen consumption assays at different enzyme concentrations. A maximum consumption of 28.38 µmolO2/min was obtained by adding 100 µg/mL LcpRR to a 2% (v/v) latex emulsion as substrate. The bioconversion of natural rubber into reaction degradation products or oligoisoprenoids was calculated to be 32.54%. Furthermore, the mass distribution of the oligoisoprenoids was analysed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and 17 degradation products, ranging from C20 to C100 oligoisoprenoids, were identified. The multi-enzymatic degradation capacity of R. rhodochrous positions it as a model microorganism in complex degradation processes such as in the case of tyre waste.

PhRHMs play important roles in leaf and flower development and anthocyanin synthesis in petunia.

Anthocyanins, vital metabolites in plants, are formed by anthocyanidins combined with various monosaccharides, including glucose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Rhamnose contributes greatly to the glycosylation of anthocyanidins. There are two kinds of rhamnose synthase (RS): rhamnose biosynthesis (RHM), and nucleotide-RS/epimerase-reductase (UER1). Nevertheless, no RS isoform was reported to be involved in anthocyanin synthesis. Here, three homologous PhRHM genes, namely PhRHM1, PhRHM2, and PhRHM3, and one PhUER1 gene from petunia were cloned and characterized. Green fluorescent protein fusion protein assays revealed that PhRHMs and PhUER1 are localized in the cytoplasm. We obtained PhRHM1 or/and PhRHM2 or PhUER1 silenced petunia plants and did not attempt to obtain PhRHM3 silenced plants since PhRHM3 mRNA was not detected in petunia organs examined. PhRHM1 and PhRHM2 (PhRHM1-2) silencing induced abnormal plant growth and decreased the contents of l-rhamnose, photosynthetic pigments and total anthocyanins, while PhUER1 silencing did not cause any visible phenotypic changes. Flavonoid metabolome analysis further revealed that PhRHM1-2 silencing reduced the contents of anthocyanins with rhamnose residue. These results revealed that PhRHMs contribute to the biosynthesis of rhamnose and that PhRHMs participate in the anthocyanin rhamnosylation in petunia, while PhUER1 does not.

Altering the substrate specificity of recombinant l-rhamnose isomerase from Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum NTOU1 to favor d-allose production.

l-Rhamnose isomerase (l-RhI) catalyzes rare sugar isomerization between aldoses and ketoses. In an attempt to alter the substrate specificity of Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticus NTOU1 l-RhI (TsRhI), residue Ile102 was changed to other polar or charged amino acid residues by site-directed mutagenesis. The results of activity-screening using different substrates indicate that I102N, I102Q, and I102R TsRhIs can increase the preference against d-allose in comparison with the wild-type enzyme. The catalytic efficiencies of the purified I102N, I102Q, and I102R TsRhIs against d-allose are 148 %, 277 %, and 191 %, respectively, of that of wild-type enzyme, while those against l-rhamnose are 100 %, 167 % and 87 %, respectively. Mutant I102N, I102Q, and I102R TsRhIs were noted to have the altered substrate specificity, and I102Q TsRhI has the highest catalytic efficiency against d-allose presumably through the formation of an additional hydrogen bond with d-allose. The purified wild-type and mutant TsRhIs were further used to produce d-allose from 100 g/L d-fructose in the presence of d-allulose 3-epimerase, and the yields can reach as high as 22 % d-allulose and 12 % d-allose upon equilibrium. I102Q TsRhI takes only around half of the time to reach the same 12 % d-allose yield, suggesting that this mutant enzyme has a potential to be applied in d-allose production.

Chemical composition and adjuvant properties of the macromolecules from cultivated Cistanche deserticola Y. C. Ma as an immunopotentiator.

The study aims to investigate the constituents, adjuvant effects, and underlying mechanisms of purified polysaccharides from cultivated Cistanche deserticola (C. deserticola). Two macromolecules designated as CCDP-1 (26.5 kDa) and CCDP-2 (32.3 kDa) from C. deserticola were respectively identified as carbohydrate-lignin complexes with 44.1 % and 43.8 % lignin. CCDP-1 and CCDP-2 were composed of glucose, rhamnose, galactose, arabinose, and mannose respectively in the molar ratios of 7.22: 5.98:2.51:1.81:1.00 and 6.57:8.48:4.20:2.72:1.00. An in vitro experiment revealed that endotoxin-free CCDP-1 and CCDP-2 promoted splenocyte proliferation without cytotoxicity, but CCDP-2 induced dendritic cell (DC) maturation more efficiently than CCDP-1. An in vivo experiment suggested that CCDP-2 enhanced OVA-specific antibody production, antigen-specific T-cell activation, IFN-γ production, IL-4 production, and DC activation. Notably, CCDP-2 elicited a Th1-biased response. Mechanically, CCDP-2 upregulated CD40, CD80, CD86, and MHC II, facilitated allogeneic T-cell proliferation and Th1/Th2 cytokines, improved IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-6, and TNF-α production, and decreased endocytosis from DCs in vitro. Blocking assays indicated that TLR2 and TLR4 were the membrane receptor candidates of DCs. Western blot implied that CCDP-2 with the immune-enhancing activities were involved in the activation of MAPKs and NF-κB pathways in a dose-/time-related manner and could be employed as a more balanced Th1/Th2 adjuvant for vaccine exploitation.