Cross-subsidies are a viable option to fund formal pit latrine emptying services: Evidence from Kigali, Rwanda.

Pit latrines are the most common household sanitation system in East African cities. Urbanisation reduces the space available for new latrines to be constructed when pits fill and they increasingly require emptying. But formal services that empty and transport sludge to safe disposal or treatment are often unaffordable to low-income households. Cross-subsidies have been suggested to fund services for low-income households but there are no academic studies assessing this funding mechanism. This study analyses empirical financial and operational data shared by a formal service provider in Kigali, Rwanda who is establishing a cross-subsidy model between corporate and high-income households, and low-income households in informal settlements. A semi-mechanical method is used to serve households which cannot be accessed from the road by an exhauster truck. We find that mechanical emptying is gross profitable when exhauster trucks are fully used, particularly large volume and corporate customers. Transferring sludge between vehicles for efficient transport reduces average cost. Cross-subsidies are found to be a viable funding method and a ten-fold increase in mechanical emptying by the service provider would generate 466,876 Int$ (2022 international dollars) gross profit to fund a cross-subsidy for all low-income households in Kigali which require semi-mechanical emptying. This study highlights the opportunities that city authorities have to organise funding to cross-subsidise emptying for low-income households. In addition, by using data from operational records rather than self-reported estimates the reliability of cost estimates is in improved. Further research is required to understand customer group size, demand and emptying frequencies to determine the structure of a citywide cross-subsidy.

Catastrophic health expenditure of inpatients in emerging economies: evidence from the Indian subcontinent.

BACKGROUND: Catastrophic health expenditures condensed the vital concern of households struggling with notable financial burdens emanating from elevated out-of-pocket healthcare expenditures. In this regard, this study investigated the nature and magnitude of inpatient healthcare expenditure in India. It also explored the incidence and determinants of inpatient catastrophic health expenditure. METHODOLOGY: The study used the micro-level data collected in the 75th Round of the National Sample Survey on 93 925 households in India. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the nature, magnitude and incidence of inpatient healthcare expenditure. The heteroscedastic probit model was applied to explore the determinants of inpatient catastrophic healthcare expenditure. RESULTS: The major part of inpatient healthcare expenditure was composed of bed charges and expenditure on medicines. Moreover, results suggested that Indian households spent 11% of their monthly consumption expenditure on inpatient healthcare and 28% of households were grappling with the complexity of financial burden due to elevated inpatient healthcare. Further, the study explored that bigger households and households having no latrine facilities and no proper waste disposal plans were more vulnerable to facing financial burdens in inpatient healthcare activity. Finally, the result of this study also ensure that households having toilets and safe drinking water facilities reduce the chance of facing catastrophic inpatient health expenditures. CONCLUSIONS: A significant portion of monthly consumption expenditure was spent on inpatient healthcare of households in India. It was also conveyed that inpatient healthcare expenditure was a severe burden for almost one fourth of households in India. Finally, it also clarified the influence of socio-economic conditions and sanitation status of households as having a strong bearing on their inpatient healthcare.

Budgeting and Advocacy to Improve Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Health Care Facilities: A Case Study in Nepal.

Barriers to achieving and sustaining access to water, sanitation, hygiene, cleaning, and waste management (WASH) in health care facilities include a lack of supportive policy environment and adequate funding. While guidelines exist for assessing needs and making initial infrastructure improvements, there is little guidance on how to develop budgets and policies to sustain WASH services. We conducted costing and advocacy activities in Thakurbaba municipality, Nepal, to develop a budget and operations and maintenance policy for WASH in health care facilities in partnership with the municipal government. Our objectives for this study were to (1) describe the process and methods used for costing and advocacy, (2) report the costs to achieve and maintain basic WASH services in the 8 health care facilities of Thakurbaba municipality, and (3) report the outcomes of advocacy activities and policy development. We applied bottom-up costing to enumerate the resources necessary to achieve and maintain basic WASH services and their costs. The annual costs to achieve, operate, and maintain basic access to WASH services ranged from US$4881-US$9695 per facility. Cost findings were used to prepare annual budgets recommended to achieve, operate, and maintain basic services, which were presented to the municipal government and incorporated into an operations and maintenance policy. To date, the municipality has adopted the policy and established a recovery fund of US$3831 for repair and maintenance of infrastructure and an additional US$153 per facility for discretionary WASH spending, which were to be replenished as they were spent. Advocacy at the national level for WASH in health care facilities is currently being championed by the municipality, and findings from this project have informed the development of a nationally costed plan for universal access. This study is intended to provide a roadmap for how cost data can be collected and applied to inform policy.

The effect of financial inclusion on open defecation and sharing of toilet facilities among households in Ghana.

Globally, and in Ghana, a lot of people do practice open defecation as well as share toilet facilities with other households. Meanwhile, open defecation in particular, is associated with numerous negative health and economic effects. To this end, a number of empirical studies have been conducted on the determinants of access to sanitation facilities among households in Ghana. Nonetheless, while financial inclusion (sustainable ways of ensuring easier accessibility to cheap and useful financial products and services among individuals/firms) can enhance the ability of households or individuals to afford toilet facilities, hence, could help in curbing open defecation and sharing of toilet facilities among households, the previous studies on Ghana did not pay attention to it. This study therefore uses data from the 7th round of the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS7) to examine the association of financial inclusion with open defecation and sharing of toilet facilities among households in Ghana. The binary logit regression is used as the empirical estimation technique. The results show that, financial inclusion in general is associated with lesser likelihood of open defecation and sharing of toilet facilities among households in Ghana after controlling for welfare quintile, urban or rural residence and other covariates. Moreover, while informal financial inclusion is statistically insignificant, formal financial inclusion is found to be associated with reduced open defecation and sharing of toilet facilities among households. Thus, in the attempt to eliminate open defecation as well as reduce the sharing of toilet facilities among households in Ghana, conscious efforts should be devoted towards enhancing formal financial inclusion.

Mathematical Model for Optimal Control of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infection.

In this paper, we study the dynamics of soil-transmitted helminth infection. We formulate and analyse a deterministic compartmental model using nonlinear differential equations. The basic reproduction number is obtained and both disease-free and endemic equilibrium points are shown to be asymptotically stable under given threshold conditions. The model may exhibit backward bifurcation for some parameter values, and the sensitivity indices of the basic reproduction number with respect to the parameters are determined. We extend the model to include control measures for eradication of the infection from the community. Pontryagian's maximum principle is used to formulate the optimal control problem using three control strategies, namely, health education through provision of educational materials, educational messages to improve the awareness of the susceptible population, and treatment by mass drug administration that target the entire population(preschool- and school-aged children) and sanitation through provision of clean water and personal hygiene. Numerical simulations were done using MATLAB and graphical results are displayed. The cost effectiveness of the control measures were done using incremental cost-effective ratio, and results reveal that the combination of health education and sanitation is the best strategy to combat the helminth infection. Therefore, in order to completely eradicate soil-transmitted helminths, we advise investment efforts on health education and sanitation controls.

Benefits and Costs of a Community-Led Total Sanitation Intervention in Rural Ethiopia-A Trial-Based ex post Economic Evaluation.

We estimated the costs and benefits of a community-led total sanitation (CLTS) intervention using the empirical results from a cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Ethiopia. We modelled benefits and costs of the intervention over 10 years, as compared to an existing local government program. Health benefits were estimated as the value of averted mortality due to diarrheal disease and the cost of illness arising from averted diarrheal morbidity. We also estimated the value of time savings from avoided open defecation and use of neighbours' latrines. Intervention delivery costs were estimated top-down based on financial records, while recurrent costs were estimated bottom-up from trial data. We explored methodological and parameter uncertainty using one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. Avoided mortality accounted for 58% of total benefits, followed by time savings from increased access to household latrines. The base case benefit-cost ratio was 3.7 (95% CI: 1.9-5.4) and the net present value was Int'l $1,193,786 (95% CI: 406,017-1,977,960). The sources of the largest uncertainty in one-way sensitivity analyses were the effect of the CLTS intervention and the assumed lifespan of an improved latrine. Our results suggest that CLTS interventions can yield favourable economic returns, particularly if follow-up after the triggering is implemented intensively and uptake of improved latrines is achieved (as opposed to unimproved).

Forecasts of mortality and economic losses from poor water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa.

This paper presents country-level estimates of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)-related mortality and the economic losses associated with poor access to water and sanitation infrastructure in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from 1990 to 2050. We examine the extent to which the changes that accompany economic growth will "solve" water and sanitation problems in SSA and, if so, how long it will take. Our simulations suggest that WASH-related mortality will continue to differ markedly across countries in sub-Saharan Africa. In many countries, expected economic growth alone will not be sufficient to eliminate WASH-related mortality or eliminate the economic losses associated with poor access to water and sanitation infrastructure by 2050. In other countries, WASH-related mortality will sharply decline, although the economic losses associated with the time spent collecting water are forecast to persist. Overall, our findings suggest that in a subset of countries in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Angola, Niger, Sierra Leone, Chad and several others), WASH-related investments will remain a priority for decades and require a long-term, sustained effort from both the international community and national governments.

Economic cost analysis of low-cost sanitation technology options in informal settlement areas (case study: Soweto, Johannesburg).

In Urban Africa, water and sanitation utility companies are facing a huge backlog of sanitation provision in the informal settlement areas. In order to clear this backlog, new investment is required. However, to select appropriate sanitation technologies, lifecycle costs need to be assessed. The aim of this research was to establish lifecycle costs for appropriate sanitation technologies in informal settlement areas. Three sanitation options were compared: simplified sewerage, urine diversion dry toilet (UDDT) and Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine. Three scenarios for simplified sewerage were considered; gravity flow into existing conventional sewers with treatment; new-build with pumping and treatment; and new-build gravity flow with treatment. The study revealed that simplified sewerage is the cheapest option for Soweto informal settlement, even when the costs of pumping and treatment are included. Gravity simplified sewerage with treatment is cheaper than the UDDT system and VIP latrine at all population densities above 158 and 172 persons/ha, respectively. The total annual cost per household of simplified sewerage and treatment was US$142 compared to US$156 and US$144 for UDDT and VIP latrine respectively. The costs of simplified sewerage could be recovered through a monthly household surcharge and cross-subsidy summing US$5.3 The study concluded that simplified sewerage system was the first choice for Soweto informal settlement areas, given the current population density.

Costs and Willingness to Pay for Pit Latrine Emptying Services in Kigali, Rwanda.

Kigali, Rwanda lacks a centralized sewer system, which leaves residents to choose between on-site options; the majority of residents in informal settlements use pit latrines as their primary form of sanitation. When their pits fill, the pits are either sealed, or emptied; emptying is often done by hand and then dumped in the environment, putting the residents and the broader population at risk of infectious disease outbreaks. In this paper, we used revealed and stated preference models to: (1) estimate the demand curve for improved emptying services; and, (2) evaluate household preferences and the willingness to pay (WTP) for different attributes of improved emptying services. We also quantify the costs of improved service delivery at different scales of production. The study included 1167 households from Kigali, Rwanda across 30 geographic clusters. Our results show that, at a price of US$79 per pit, 15% of all the pits would be emptied by improved emptying services, roughly the current rate of manual emptying. Grouping empties by neighborhood and ensuring that each truck services an average of four households per day could reduce the production costs to US$44 per empty, ensuring full cost coverage at that price. At a lower price of US$24, we estimate that the sealing of pits might be fully eliminated, with full coverage of improved emptying services for all pits; this would require a relatively small subsidy of US$20 per empty. Our results show that households had strong preferences for fecal sludge (FS) treatment, formalized services (which include worker protections), and distant disposal. The results from the study indicate a few key policies and operational strategies that can be used for maximizing the inclusion of low-income households in safely managed sanitation services, while also incorporating household preferences and participation.

Assessing the Demand for Plastic Latrine Slabs in Rural Kenya.

Improving access to safe and affordable sanitation facilities is a global health priority that is essential for meeting the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals. To promote the use of improved sanitation in rural and low-income settings, plastic latrine slabs provide a simple option for upgrading traditional pit latrines. The International Finance Corporation/World Bank Selling Sanitation program estimated that plastic slabs would have a 34% annual growth, with a market size of US$2.53 million in Kenya by 2017. In this study, we examined the commercial viability of these plastic latrine slabs in rural Kenya by evaluating a financing and distribution model intervention, documenting household slab sales to date, and assessing consumer exposure and perceptions. We also determined household willingness to pay through a real-money auction with 322 households. We found that no households in our study area had purchased the plastic slabs. The primary barriers to slab sales were limited marketing activities and low demand compared with the sales price: households were willing to pay an average of US$5 compared with a market price of US$16. Therefore, current household demand for the plastic latrine slabs in rural Kenya is too low to support commercial distribution. Further efforts are required to align the price of plastic latrine slabs with consumer demand in this setting, such as additional demand creation, product financing, and public sector investment.

Opportunities and barriers to effective operation and maintenance of public toilets in informal settlements: perspectives from toilet operators in Kampala.

Although classified by the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) as unimproved sanitation facilities, public toilets still play a critical role in eliminating open defecation in informal settlements. We explored perspectives of toilet operators on opportunities and barriers to operation and maintenance (O&M) of public toilets in informal settlements. A cross-sectional study design was used. Up to 20 in-depth interviews were used to obtain data on the experiences of public toilet operators. Thematic content analysis was used. Ressults show that opportunities for improving O&M include; operation of public toilets is a source of livelihood; operators are knowledgeable on occupational risks, and the community is involvedin sanitation activities. Barriers to effective O&M include; high operation costs, failure to break even and a lack of investments in occupational health Therefore, there is need to recognise the significance of public toilets as a viable alternative to open defecation in areas where ownership of private sanitation facilities is difficult. Failure to observe the health and safety of toilet operators may further compromise O&M.

Rapid monitoring and evaluation of a community-led total sanitation program using smartphones.

India accounts for around 50% of the world's open defecation, and under a World Bank initiative, a rural district was selected to be the first open defecation-free (ODF) district in Punjab. Considering this, the current study aims to evaluate the application and impact of a smartphone-based instant messaging app (IMA) on the process of making Fatehgarh Sahib an ODF district. The District Administration involved the Water Supply and Sanitation Department, Non-government Organizations, and volunteers to promote the process of a community-led total sanitation. Proper training was provided to the volunteers to spread awareness about the triggering events, health impacts of open defecation, and monetary benefits of building new individual household latrine (IHHL). IMA was used as an aid to speed up monitoring and for the evaluation of a sanitation program. All the volunteers were connected to an IMA. This helped in providing a transparent and evidence-based field report on triggering events, follow-up activities, validation of existing IHHL, and monitoring of construction of new IHHL. IMA is a cost-effective tool as it is already being used by the volunteers and requires no additional cost (on the user or on the project) but requires a training on ethical uses of mobile and data safety.

Drivers of women's sanitation practices in informal settlements in sub-Saharan Africa: a qualitative study in Mathare Valley, Kenya.

Despite evidence suggesting women are disproportionately affected by the lack of adequate and safe sanitation facilities around the world, there is limited information about the factors that influence women's ability to access and utilize sanitation, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The purpose of this study was to explore factors influencing women's sanitation practices in informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya. Information from 55 in-depth interviews conducted in 2016 with 55 women in Mathare Valley Informal Settlement in Nairobi was used to carry out cross-case, thematic analysis of women's common sanitation routines. Women identified neighborhood disorganization, fear of victimization, lack of privacy, and cleanliness/dirtiness of facilities as important factors in the choices they make about their sanitation practices. This suggests that future sanitation-related interventions and policies may need to consider strategies that focus not only on toilet provision or adoption but also on issues of space and community dynamics.

Importance of triggers and veto-barriers for the implementation of sanitation in informal peri-urban settlements - The case of Cochabamba, Bolivia.

An estimated 2.4 billion people lack access to improved sanitation which has devastating consequences for human health and the environment. Understanding what constitute sanitation demand is crucial for accelerating the spread of improved sanitation. This study aims to understand the adoption mechanisms for improved sanitation. An informal peri-urban settlement in Cochabamba, Bolivia was selected as a case study to understand adoption patterns. Various qualitative methods of data collection and analysis were employed. The findings showed that pour-flush toilets was the only preferred sanitation alternative at the study site. An adoption framework for waterborne toilets was developed based on diffusion of innovation theory. Factors that influence adoption were identified. Some functioned as triggers and initiated adoption, whereas some factors blocked adoption and constituted veto-barriers. Most factors were connected to the individual household situation and its members, but neighborhood development also affected pour-flush adoption. Based on adoption time the residents were divided into the following adoption groups: first adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards and non-adopters. Each adoption group followed its own adoption route with specific characteristics and respective triggers or veto-barriers. We argue that the strong demand for waterborne toilets in peri-urban areas need to be recognized and the developed framework could be used for customizing sanitation improvement programs for certain target groups.

[Association between socioeconomic, health, and primary care conditions and hospital morbidity due to waterborne diseases in Brazil]. / Associação entre condições socioeconômicas, sanitárias e de atenção básica e a morbidade hospitalar por doenças de veiculação hídrica no Brasil.

The current study aimed to assess the association between socioeconomic conditions, basic sanitation, and coverage by family health teams and hospitalizations for waterborne diseases. The analysis of socioeconomic conditions and sanitation was based on an ecological study with data from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and the Brazilian Health Informatics Departament (DATASUS) database (observations for the States and Federal District) for the year 2013. Associations between family health teams and hospitalization were assessed by simple regressions, with data from DATASUS and the Department of Primary Care of Ministry of Health from 1998 to 2014. Connection to the public sewage system, low schooling, and family health team coverage were significantly associated (p < 0.05) with hospitalizations for waterborne diseases. Based on attributable risk analysis, for Brazil as a whole in 2013, 57,574 (16.3%) of hospital admissions for waterborne diseases could have been avoided by adequate sewage disposal, which would also have avoided BRL 20,372,559.90 in treatment costs and 172,722 days lost to hospitalization. The results emphasize the importance of integrated sanitation policies, education, and health care that consider regional inequalities, thereby contributing to improvement of the population's health conditions.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a associação entre condições socioeconômicas, de saneamento básico e de cobertura por equipes de saúde da família (EqSF) sobre as internações por doenças de veiculação hídrica no Brasil. A análise das condições socioeconômicas e de saneamento se deu por meio de um estudo ecológico com dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) e do Departamento de Informática do SUS (DATASUS) - observações dos Estados e Distrito Federal - para o ano de 2013. A relação das EqSF com as internações foi avaliada por meio da estimação de regressão simples, com dados coletados no DATASUS e Departamento de Atenção Básica do Ministério da Saúde, para o período de 1998 a 2014. A existência de coleta de esgoto por rede geral, a baixa escolaridade e a cobertura por EqSF influenciaram, com significância estatística (p < 0,05), as internações avaliadas. Pela análise do risco atribuível, estimou-se que no Brasil, tomando-se como base os dados de 2013, 57.574 (16,3%) das internações por doenças selecionadas poderiam ter sido evitadas, caso as condições de esgotamento sanitário fossem adequadas. Seriam ainda evitados os gastos com o tratamento delas, calculado em R$ 20.372.559,90 e os dias perdidos com as internações, 172.722. Sugere-se que a adoção integrada de políticas de saneamento, educação e assistência à saúde que considerem as desigualdades regionais contribuirá para a melhoria das condições de saúde da população.

El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar la asociación entre condiciones socioeconómicas, de saneamiento básico y de cobertura por equipos de salud de la familia sobre los internamientos por enfermedades de transmisión hídrica en Brasil. El análisis de las condiciones socioeconómicas y de saneamiento se realizó mediante un estudio ecológico, con datos de la Encuesta Nacional por Muestra de Domicilios (PNAD) y del Sistema de Información del Sistema Único de Salud (DATASUS) -observaciones de los Estados y Districto Federal- durante el año 2013. La relación de los equipos de salud de la familia con los internamientos se evaluó gracias a la estimación de regresión simple, con los datos recogidos en el DATASUS y el Departamento de Atención Básica del Ministerio de la Salud, para el período de 1998 a 2014. La existencia de desagües para los residuos, mediante una red general de alcantarillado, la baja escolaridad y la cobertura por equipos de salud de la familia influenciaron con significancia estadística (p < 0,05) los internamientos evaluados. Por el análisis del riesgo atribuible, se estimó que en Brasil, tomando como base los datos de 2013, 57.574 (16,3%) de los internamientos por enfermedades seleccionadas podrían haber sido evitados, si las condiciones del alcantarillado fueran las adecuadas. Se evitarían incluso los gastos con su tratamiento, calculado en BRL 20.372.559,90, y los días perdidos con los internamientos en 172.722. Se sugiere que la adopción integrada de políticas de saneamiento, educación y asistencia a la salud, que consideren las desigualdades regionales, contribuiría a la mejoría de las condiciones de salud de la población.

Greenlandic water and sanitation-a context oriented analysis of system challenges towards local sustainable development.

Today, as Greenland focuses on more economic and cultural autonomy, the continued development of societal infrastructure systems is vital. At the same time, pressure is put on the systems by a lack of financial resources and locally based professional competences as well as new market-based forms of organization. Against this background, the article discusses the challenges facing Greenland's self-rule in relation to further develop the existing water and wastewater systems so that they can contribute to the sustainable development of Greenland. The article reviews the historical development of the water supply and wastewater system. This leads to an analysis of the sectorisation, which in recent decades has reorganized the Greenlandic infrastructures, and of how this process is influencing local sustainable development. The article discusses the socio-economic and human impacts and points to the need for developing the water and sanitation system to support not only hygiene and health, but also local sustainable development.

Associação entre condições socioeconômicas, sanitárias e de atenção básica e a morbidade hospitalar por doenças de veiculação hídrica no Brasil / Association between socioeconomic, health, and primary care conditions and hospital morbidity due to waterborne diseases in Brazil / Asociación entre condiciones socioeconómicas, sanitarias y de atención básica y la morbilidad hospitalaria por enfermedades de transmisión hídrica en Brasil

Resumo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a associação entre condições socioeconômicas, de saneamento básico e de cobertura por equipes de saúde da família (EqSF) sobre as internações por doenças de veiculação hídrica no Brasil. A análise das condições socioeconômicas e de saneamento se deu por meio de um estudo ecológico com dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) e do Departamento de Informática do SUS (DATASUS) - observações dos Estados e Distrito Federal - para o ano de 2013. A relação das EqSF com as internações foi avaliada por meio da estimação de regressão simples, com dados coletados no DATASUS e Departamento de Atenção Básica do Ministério da Saúde, para o período de 1998 a 2014. A existência de coleta de esgoto por rede geral, a baixa escolaridade e a cobertura por EqSF influenciaram, com significância estatística (p < 0,05), as internações avaliadas. Pela análise do risco atribuível, estimou-se que no Brasil, tomando-se como base os dados de 2013, 57.574 (16,3%) das internações por doenças selecionadas poderiam ter sido evitadas, caso as condições de esgotamento sanitário fossem adequadas. Seriam ainda evitados os gastos com o tratamento delas, calculado em R$ 20.372.559,90 e os dias perdidos com as internações, 172.722. Sugere-se que a adoção integrada de políticas de saneamento, educação e assistência à saúde que considerem as desigualdades regionais contribuirá para a melhoria das condições de saúde da população.

Abstract: The current study aimed to assess the association between socioeconomic conditions, basic sanitation, and coverage by family health teams and hospitalizations for waterborne diseases. The analysis of socioeconomic conditions and sanitation was based on an ecological study with data from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and the Brazilian Health Informatics Departament (DATASUS) database (observations for the States and Federal District) for the year 2013. Associations between family health teams and hospitalization were assessed by simple regressions, with data from DATASUS and the Department of Primary Care of Ministry of Health from 1998 to 2014. Connection to the public sewage system, low schooling, and family health team coverage were significantly associated (p < 0.05) with hospitalizations for waterborne diseases. Based on attributable risk analysis, for Brazil as a whole in 2013, 57,574 (16.3%) of hospital admissions for waterborne diseases could have been avoided by adequate sewage disposal, which would also have avoided BRL 20,372,559.90 in treatment costs and 172,722 days lost to hospitalization. The results emphasize the importance of integrated sanitation policies, education, and health care that consider regional inequalities, thereby contributing to improvement of the population's health conditions.

Resumen: El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar la asociación entre condiciones socioeconómicas, de saneamiento básico y de cobertura por equipos de salud de la familia sobre los internamientos por enfermedades de transmisión hídrica en Brasil. El análisis de las condiciones socioeconómicas y de saneamiento se realizó mediante un estudio ecológico, con datos de la Encuesta Nacional por Muestra de Domicilios (PNAD) y del Sistema de Información del Sistema Único de Salud (DATASUS) -observaciones de los Estados y Districto Federal- durante el año 2013. La relación de los equipos de salud de la familia con los internamientos se evaluó gracias a la estimación de regresión simple, con los datos recogidos en el DATASUS y el Departamento de Atención Básica del Ministerio de la Salud, para el período de 1998 a 2014. La existencia de desagües para los residuos, mediante una red general de alcantarillado, la baja escolaridad y la cobertura por equipos de salud de la familia influenciaron con significancia estadística (p < 0,05) los internamientos evaluados. Por el análisis del riesgo atribuible, se estimó que en Brasil, tomando como base los datos de 2013, 57.574 (16,3%) de los internamientos por enfermedades seleccionadas podrían haber sido evitados, si las condiciones del alcantarillado fueran las adecuadas. Se evitarían incluso los gastos con su tratamiento, calculado en BRL 20.372.559,90, y los días perdidos con los internamientos en 172.722. Se sugiere que la adopción integrada de políticas de saneamiento, educación y asistencia a la salud, que consideren las desigualdades regionales, contribuiría a la mejoría de las condiciones de salud de la población.

Culturally appropriate organization of water and sewerage projects built through public private partnerships.

This paper contributes to the pursuit of socially sustainable water and sanitation infrastructure for all people by discovering statistically robust relationships between Hofstede's dimensions of cross-cultural comparison and the choice of contract award types, project type, and primary revenue sources. This analysis, which represents 973 projects distributed across 24 low- and middle-income nations, uses a World Bank dataset describing high capital cost water and sewerage projects funded through private investment. The results show that cultural dimensions explain variation in the choice of contract award types, project type, and primary revenue sources. These results provide empirical evidence that strategies for water and sewerage project organization are not culturally neutral. The data show, for example, that highly individualistic contexts are more likely to select competitive contract award types and to depend on user fees to provide the primary project revenue stream post-construction. By selecting more locally appropriate ways to organize projects, project stakeholders will be better able to pursue the construction of socially sustainable water and sewerage infrastructure.

Decision-making on shared sanitation in the informal settlements of Kisumu, Kenya.

Unlike most quantitative studies that investigate decision-making on investing in sanitation, this study adopted a qualitative approach to investigate decision-making on shared sanitation in the informal settlements of Kisumu city, in Kenya. Using a grounded theory approach, landlords and tenants were interviewed to identify sanitation decisions, individuals involved in decision-making and factors influencing decision-making. The results indicate that the main sanitation decisions are on investment, emptying, repair and cleaning. Landlords make investment, emptying and repair decisions, while tenants make cleaning decisions. Absentee landlords are less involved in most decision-making compared to live-in landlords, who rarely consult tenants in decision-making. Tenants make decisions after consultations with a third party and often collectively with other tenants. Sanitation interventions in informal settlements should thus, target landlords and tenants, with investment efforts being directed at landlords and maintenance efforts at tenants.