Fetal gender prediction by monitoring circulating steroid hormones and some biochemical parameters in maternal dromedary camels.

To predict the sex of the foetus, healthy pregnant dromedary camels (n = 24) were included. Blood samples were collected for measurements of progesterone, estradiol, testosterone, and cortisol as well as total proteins, albumin, glucose, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, creatine kinase, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. Statistical analysis revealed differences between pregnant camels and pregnant camels in terms of female or male foetuses depending on the actual sex of the born calf. The results revealed that testosterone and ALP concentrations were significantly (P < 0.001) greater in camels given to males than in those given to calves. There were strong positive correlations between male calf birth and testosterone and ALP concentrations (r = 0.864; P < 0.0001 and r = 0.637; P < 0.001, respectively). On the other hand, the cortisol, glucose and creatinine concentrations were significantly lower (P lower in camel calved males than in females). There were significant negative correlations between male calf birth and the cortisol, glucose and creatinine concentrations (r =-0.401; P = 0.052; r =-0.445; P = 0.029 and r =-0.400; P = 0.053, respectively). The concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, calcium/phosphorus ratio, magnesium, and albumin and the albumin/globulin ratio were not significantly different (P > 0.05) between the two groups. In conclusion, testosterone could be used as a biomarker to determine the sex of foetuses in dromedary camels.

Chick sexing based on the blood analysis using Raman spectroscopy.

Efforts are underway to develop technology for automatically determining the sex of chick embryos, aimed at establishing a stable and efficient poultry farming system while also addressing animal welfare concerns. This study investigated the possibility of chick sexing through blood analysis using Raman spectroscopy. Raman spectra were obtained from whole blood and its constituents, such as red blood cells (RBCs) and blood plasma, collected from chicks aged 1-2 days, using a 785-nm excitation wavelength. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed statistically significant sex-dependent spectral variations in whole blood and RBCs, whereas blood plasma showed less clear dependency. These spectral differences between male and female chicks were attributed to differences in the proportion of spectral components from oxygenated (oxy-) and deoxygenated (deoxy-) RBCs, with males exhibiting a slightly stronger contribution of oxy-RBCs compared to females. This reflects the higher oxygen affinity of hemoglobin (Hb) in males compared to females. A model for discriminating chick sex was built using the ratios of certain Raman band characteristics of oxy-RBCs and deoxy-RBCs, achieving a sensitivity of 100%. This spectroscopic method holds promise for developing technology to discriminate the sex of early chicken embryos in ovo by detecting differences in oxygen saturation of RBCs based on sex.

Comparison three primer pairs for molecular sex determination in Eurasian pygmy owls (Glaucidium passerinum).

Bird sex determination is fundamental in various ecological and biological studies, although many avian species cannot be sexed visually due to their monomorphic and/or monochromatic appearance. Thus, reliable laboratory methods for sexing are a prerequisite. Most avian nestlings lack sex-related signs, including the Eurasian pygmy owl (Glaucidium passerinum). We performed laboratory sex determination analysis of this species using blood samples of 242 juveniles and nine adults. It relied on the qPCR of the specific intron from the chromo-helicase DNA-binding protein 1 gene. We tested three primer sets, the P2/P8, 2550F/2718R, and CHD1F/CHD1R, commonly used for bird laboratory sexing. The outcomes were displayed on an agarose gel electrophoresis and a plot from melt curve analysis, which had not been previously conducted in Eurasian pygmy owls. We found that only primer set CHD1F/CHD1R proved reliable, as the only one determined sex with one and two band/s and peak/s on the electrophoresis and the melt curve plot for males and females, respectively. The other two primer pairs failed and depicted one band/peak in all specimens regardless of their sex. Therefore, we recommend performing Eurasian pygmy owls' laboratory sexing by qPCR with CHD1F/CHD1R primers only.

Innovative approach for high-throughput exploiting sex-specific markers in Japanese parrotfish Oplegnathus fasciatus.

BACKGROUND: The use of sex-specific molecular markers has become a prominent method in enhancing fish production and economic value, as well as providing a foundation for understanding the complex molecular mechanisms involved in fish sex determination. Over the past decades, research on male and female sex identification has predominantly employed molecular biology methodologies such as restriction fragment length polymorphism, random amplification of polymorphic DNA, simple sequence repeat, and amplified fragment length polymorphism. The emergence of high-throughput sequencing technologies, particularly Illumina, has led to the utilization of single nucleotide polymorphism and insertion/deletion variants as significant molecular markers for investigating sex identification in fish. The advancement of sex-controlled breeding encounters numerous challenges, including the inefficiency of current methods, intricate experimental protocols, high costs of development, elevated rates of false positives, marker instability, and cumbersome field-testing procedures. Nevertheless, the emergence and swift progress of PacBio high-throughput sequencing technology, characterized by its long-read output capabilities, offers novel opportunities to overcome these obstacles. FINDINGS: Utilizing male/female assembled genome information in conjunction with short-read sequencing data survey and long-read PacBio sequencing data, a catalog of large-segment (>100 bp) insertion/deletion genetic variants was generated through a genome-wide variant site-scanning approach with bidirectional comparisons. The sequence tagging sites were ranked based on the long-read depth of the insertion/deletion site, with markers exhibiting lower long-read depth being considered more effective for large-segment deletion variants. Subsequently, a catalog of bulk primers and simulated PCR for the male/female variant loci was developed, incorporating primer design for the target region and electronic PCR (e-PCR) technology. The Japanese parrotfish (Oplegnathus fasciatus), belonging to the Oplegnathidae family within the Centrarchiformes order, holds significant economic value as a rocky reef fish indigenous to East Asia. The criteria for rapid identification of male and female differences in Japanese parrotfish were established through agarose gel electrophoresis, which revealed 2 amplified bands for males and 1 amplified band for females. A high-throughput identification catalog of sex-specific markers was then constructed using this method, resulting in the identification of 3,639 (2,786 INS/853 DEL, ♀ as reference) and 3,672 (2,876 INS/833 DEL, ♂ as reference) markers in conjunction with 1,021 and 894 high-quality genetic sex identification markers, respectively. Sixteen differential loci were randomly chosen from the catalog for validation, with 11 of them meeting the criteria for male/female distinctions. The implementation of cost-effective and efficient technological processes would facilitate the rapid advancement of genetic breeding through expediting the high-throughput development of sex genetic markers for various species. CONCLUSIONS: Our study utilized assembled genome information from male and female individuals obtained from PacBio, in addition to data from short-read sequencing data survey and long-read PacBio sequencing data. We extensively employed genome-wide variant site scanning and identification, high-throughput primer design of target regions, and e-PCR batch amplification, along with statistical analysis and ranking of the long-read depth of the variant sites. Through this integrated approach, we successfully compiled a catalog of large insertion/deletion sites (>100 bp) in both male and female Japanese parrotfish.

Comparison of gender identification using exfoliated cells obtained from toothbrush and miswak: A longitudinal study.

Gender identification plays a pivotal role in forensic medicine. Among the various methods used for gender identification, deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) based methods are considered accurate. Exfoliated oral mucosal cells that are harvested from oral hygiene aids can be potentially used for gender identification using real-time polymerase chain rection (PCR). The aim of the present longitudinal study is to assess and compare the efficacy of toothbrush and miswak as potential tools to harvest exfoliated cells for gender identification. Forty healthy volunteers were recruited and asked to clean their teeth using new toothbrush and fresh miswak each day for 4 days. Toothbrush and miswak used by the participants were subjected to DNA analysis immediately, 1st, 2nd and 6th month. The absorbance of DNA samples were quantified and gender identification was done by amplification of sex determining gene-Sex determining region Y gene (SRY) and ALT1 genes using real-time PCR. The number of correct and positive identification for samples at various time points were tabulated and subjected to statistical analysis. Post hoc power analysis showed that the study had a power of 93%. Correct and positive gender identification was observed for the samples (100%) obtained using miswak, for tooth brush it reduced to 95%, 80%, and 35% at the end of 1st, 2nd, and 6th month. The differences seen at the end of 2nd month and 6th month were statistically significant. Miswak is a better tool to harvest exfoliated cells for gender identification when compared to a toothbrush. Hence, miswak can serve as a potential tool in forensic medicine for DNA extraction and subsequently victim identification.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a Useful and Low-Cost Tool for Molecular Sexing Psittaciformes under Human Care: An Example of a Collaborative Approach in Mexico.

Sex determination in monomorphic birds is a precondition for captive breeding programs and management and conservation strategies for threatened species. Most species of the order Psittaciformes often present complications since these birds lack external sexual phenotypic traits, making it impossible to differentiate males and females. In the present study, we used molecular techniques to determine the sex of 31 individuals belonging to nine species of the order Psittaciformes kept under human care at the Akumal Monkey Sanctuary & Rescued Animals in Quintana Roo, Mexico. This is a useful and low-cost methodology based on the analysis of the conserved region of the CHD1 gene, which was amplified by PCR with two sets of primers: P8/P2 and 2550F/2718 R. All individuals were successfully sexed with the first set of primers, while only 28 out of 31 samples (90%) could be amplified with the second set. Out of the 31 individuals analyzed, fifteen are female, and seventeen are male. This information represents a handy tool for adequately managing birds under human care, resulting in their reproduction and eventual reintegration into their natural habitat.

New primers for sex identification in the Chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar).

1. Male and female Chukar partridges are difficult to differentiate based on their morphology or by the Chromobox-Helicase-DNA binding (CHD) during early growth.2. The current study developed a novel, simple, low-cost and rapid sexing protocol for Chukar partridges based on the newly defined sexing gene ubiquitin-associated protein 2 (UBAP2).3. The length of polymorphism between UBAP2-W and UBAP2-Z homologous genes allows for easy sex discrimination in this species. Molecular sexing analysis was based on the simultaneous amplification of both genes, resulting in two distinct amplicons (947 bp and 535 bp) in heterogametic females and only a single band (535 bp) in homogametic males, which is easy to detect with agarose gel electrophoresis.4. This technique is simple and convenient for genetic sex determination in Chukar partridges.

Mandibular and dental measurements for sex determination using machine learning.

The present study tested the combination of mandibular and dental dimensions for sex determination using machine learning. Lateral cephalograms and dental casts were used to obtain mandibular and mesio-distal permanent teeth dimensions, respectively. Univariate statistics was used for variables selection for the supervised machine learning model (alpha = 0.05). The following algorithms were trained: logistic regression, gradient boosting classifier, k-nearest neighbors, support vector machine, multilayer perceptron classifier, decision tree, and random forest classifier. A threefold cross-validation approach was adopted to validate each model. The areas under the curve (AUC) were computed, and ROC curves were constructed. Three mandibular-related measurements and eight dental size-related dimensions were used to train the machine learning models using data from 108 individuals. The mandibular ramus height and the lower first molar mesio-distal size exhibited the greatest predictive capability in most of the evaluated models. The accuracy of the models varied from 0.64 to 0.74 in the cross-validation stage, and from 0.58 to 0.79 when testing the data. The logistic regression model exhibited the highest performance (AUC = 0.84). Despite the limitations of this study, the results seem to show that the integration of mandibular and dental dimensions for sex prediction would be a promising approach, emphasizing the potential of machine learning techniques as valuable tools for this purpose.

Visual identification for species and sex derived from bloodstain based on phosphate-mediated isothermal amplification colorimetric system.

Species and sex confirmation of the biological specimen play a crucial role in crime investigation. However, the specimen found in the scene is always trace quantity, which is hard to be analyzed by current methods. Moreover, the time-consuming DNA extraction, sophisticated apparatus, and complex data processing make it difficult to satisfy the demand of speediness and convenience for point-of-care tests. In this study, we first exhibit a phosphate-based visual system for field-based species and sex identification derived from trace bloodstain. By introducing phosphate ion-based colorimetry into loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for result interpretation, not only the bloodstain can be directly submitted to mitochondrial variant amplification owing to the enhanced amplification efficiency by pyrophosphate ion hydrolyzation, but also the colorimetric signal can be recognized by the naked eye for result output within 30 min through molybdophosphate generation. Aerosol contamination, the major conflict of LAMP, has been solved once and for all by integrating uracil-DNA glycosylase into this system that still holds on a constant temperature. As a demonstration, cytochrome b and Y-chromosomal amelogenin are employed to identify species and sex respectively, which has achieved a highly sensitive and specific distinguishability under a strong interferential background. Accurate results can be obtained from both the simulative degraded and dated specimen, which indicates that this novel system may serve as a promising tool in forensic practice.

Sex identification of ducklings based on acoustic signals.

Sex identification of ducklings is a critical step in the poultry farming industry, and accurate sex identification is beneficial for precise breeding and cost savings. In this study, a method for identifying the sex of ducklings based on acoustic signals was proposed. In the first step, duckling vocalizations were collected and an improved spectral subtraction method and high-pass filtering were applied to reduce the influence of noise. Then, duckling vocalizations were automatically detected by using a double-threshold endpoint detection method with 3 parameters: short-time energy (STE), short-time zero-crossing rate (ZCR), and duration (D). Following the extraction of Mel-Spectrogram features from duckling vocalizations, an improved Res2Net deep learning algorithm was used for sex classification. This algorithm was introduced with the Squeeze-and-Excitation (SE) attention mechanism and Ghost module to improve the bottleneck of Res2Net, thereby improving the model accuracy and reducing the number of parameters. The ablative experimental results showed that the introduction of the SE attention mechanism improved the model accuracy by 2.01%, while the Ghost module reduced the number of model parameters by 7.26M and the FLOPs by 0.85G. Moreover, this algorithm was compared with 5 state-of-the-art (SOTA) algorithms, and the results showed that the proposed algorithm has the best cost-effectiveness, with accuracy, recall, specificity, number of parameters, and FLOPs of 94.80, 94.92, 94.69, 18.91M, and 3.46G, respectively. After that, the vocalization detection score and the average confidence strategy were used to predict the sex of individual ducklings, and the accuracy of the proposed model reached 96.67%. In conclusion, the method proposed in this study can effectively detect the sex of ducklings and serve as a reference for automated sex identification of ducklings.

Preference and Disclosure of Fetal Gender to Pregnant Women during Prenatal Ultrasonography in South South Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound scan (USS) in pregnancy has become a common diagnostic tool used in the assessment of pregnancy in recent time. In the course of routine pregnancy assessment using USS, some pregnant women will request to know the sex of their unborn babies. Their reasons for wanting to know the gender of their baby could be either for social reason like planning for an unborn child or their desire for a preferred gender. AIM: The aim of the study was to evaluate gender preferences and disclosure of foetal sex at prenatal USS. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at the antenatal clinic of Central Hospital Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria. A total of 235 consecutive consenting women who came for antenatal care (ANC) registration were recruited for the study after obtaining their informed written consent. Questionnaire was used to seek for their sociodemographic characteristics, preference and desires for foetal gender disclosure, reasons for gender disclosure, and awareness of USS accuracy for gender determination. RESULTS: The desire to know the sex of baby was high (99.6%). The major reason for wanting to know the sex of baby was to plan for the unborn child (47.7%) and maternal curiosity (37.0%). Majority of the women (57.4%) had no gender preference. Sixty percent (60%) were not aware that USS sex diagnosis could be wrong. CONCLUSION: There is a strong desire by pregnant women to know the sex of their babies at routine USS. Considering the fact that many of the women were not aware that there could be wrong diagnosis at prenatal ultrasound, it is suggested that adequate counselling be given before fetal sex disclosure.

Molecular sexing of birds using quantitative PCR (qPCR) of sex-linked genes and logistic regression models.

The ability to sex individuals is an important component of many behavioural and ecological investigations and provides information for demographic models used in conservation and species management. However, many birds are difficult to sex using morphological characters or traditional molecular sexing methods. In this study, we developed probabilistic models for sexing birds using quantitative PCR (qPCR) data. First, we quantified distributions of gene copy numbers at a set of six sex-linked genes, including the sex-determining gene DMRT1, for individuals across 17 species and seven orders of birds (n = 150). Using these data, we built predictive logistic models for sex identification and tested their performance with independent samples from 51 species and 13 orders (n = 209). Models using the two loci most highly correlated with sex had greater accuracy than models using the full set of sex-linked loci, across all taxonomic levels of analysis. Sex identification was highly accurate when individuals to be assigned were of species used in model building. Our analytical approach was widely applicable across diverse neognath bird lineages spanning millions of years of evolutionary divergence. Unlike previous methods, our probabilistic framework incorporates uncertainty around qPCR measurements as well as biological variation within species into decision-making rules. We anticipate that this method will be useful for sexing birds, including those of high conservation concern and/or subsistence value, that have proven difficult to sex using traditional approaches. Additionally, the general analytical framework presented in this paper may also be applicable to other organisms with sex chromosomes.

Sex identification of birds in Taipei Zoo.

As a conservation and breeding institution for birds, Taipei Zoo plays an important role in restoring endangered species. As approximately half of all bird species are monomorphic, precisely confirming the sex of individuals is critical for the management of ex-situ conservation breeding populations, as well as for understanding the sex ratio of those in the wild. Generally, PCR is used more reliably for sex determination versus traditional methods such as plumage, behavior or hormone levels. Nevertheless, the various primer sets and annealing temperatures vary between species, and so inaccurate sexing can occasionally happen due to inadequate PCR conditions. To reduce the probability of misidentification, and to establish a PCR condition database for sex determination across the diverse range of avian taxa, we tested multiple primer sets and annealing temperatures for amplification of the bird sex-specific gene fragments (CHD1) for each captive or rescued avian species held at Taipei Zoo since 2014. A total of 162 species across 22 orders were tested using one or two primer sets. One hundred and fifty-five species were successfully sexed by the primer set 2550F/2718R and the success rate of sex typing reached over 90% of species tested in each order. Most species have suitable PCR annealing temperatures between 45°C and 55°C, and the species in the same avian taxa showed similar results in temperature. This indicates that it is possible to select the annealing temperature of other species in the same family when the species had not been tested before. We expect this study will improve the success rate of identifying sex by using applicable PCR conditions and reduce the time for searching references every time before attempts to PCR sex birds.

Sex determination by ultrasonography prior to artificial breeding of the pufferfish Arothron manilensis (Tetraodontiformes, Tetraodontidae).

Artificial breeding was induced in the pufferfish Arothron manilensis following ultrasonographic sex determination. Hormonal treatment of mature male and female specimens followed the collection (and measurement) of fully developed eggs by cannulation. Fertilized eggs (0.85 ± 0.02 mm diameter) were spherical, demersal and individually adhesive. Hatching occurred 5 days after fertilization, larvae being 2.23 ± 0.15 mm in total length and 2.08 ± 0.14 mm in notochord length. The larvae had all died within 14 days of hatching. To improve artificial breeding techniques for A. manilensis, it is necessary to determine more appropriate timing for hormone injection, as well as feeding nutrient-enhanced SS type Brachionus sp. to newly hatched larvae.

SRY gene isolation from teeth for forensic gender identification-An observational study.

Personal identification in forensics is possible with gender determination using DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) analysis. DNA isolation from teeth samples subjected to extreme temperatures has been shown to predict the gender of the deceased. However, the literature lacks studies on DNA extracted from tooth samples exposed to freezing temperatures. This study aimed to isolate the SRY gene from the extirpated pulp of teeth that were subjected to varying temperatures for gender identification. Thirty teeth with vital pulps, divided into 3 groups were included in the study. Each group consisted of 5 male and 5 female tooth samples. The groups were exposed to diverse environmental factors for three weeks. Group 1: room temperature (R group); Group 2: high temperature (H group) and Group 3: freezing temperature (F group). Later, DNA was isolated from the pulp tissue, and the SRY gene was amplified using PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). The Sensitivity and Specificity of the results were analyzed. SRY gene detected in the study samples identified accurate gender with a 46.70% Sensitivity and 93.30% Specificity. Significant difference was found in the correlation between gene expression and gender among the three groups (p = 1.000). The study validates that dental pulp tissue can be a reliable source for DNA extraction. And SRY gene amplification from teeth exposed to diverse environmental conditions. Further investigations are required to validate its application in forensics.

A review of the recent advances for the in ovo sexing of chicken embryos using optical sensing techniques.

The culling of day-old male chicks has caused ethical and economic concerns. Traditional approaches for detecting the in ovo sex of chicken embryos involve opening the eggshell and inner membrane, which are destructive, time-consuming, and inefficient. Therefore, noncontact optical sensing techniques have been examined for the in ovo sexing of chicken embryos. Compared with traditional methods, optical sensing can increase determination throughput and frequency for the rapid sexing of chicken embryos. This paper presented a comprehensive review of the different optical sensing techniques used for the in ovo sexing of chicken embryos, including visible and near-infrared (Vis-NIR) spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and machine vision, discussing their advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the latest research regarding different detection algorithms and models for the in ovo sexing of chicken embryos was summarized. Therefore, this paper provides updated information regarding the optical sensing techniques that can be used in the poultry industry and related research.

Utilization of a Gender-Based Sorting Machine for Crustacean Selection in Bioconcentration Studies with the Freshwater Amphipod Hyalella azteca.

Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) are determined by fish flow-through tests performed according to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development test guideline 305. These are time-consuming and expensive and use a large number of animals. An alternative test design using the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca for bioconcentration studies has been recently developed and demonstrated a high potential. For bioconcentration studies using H. azteca, male amphipods are preferred compared with female organisms. Manual sexing of male adult amphipods is, however, time-consuming and requires care and skill. A new fully automatic sorting and dispensing machine for H. azteca based on image analysis has recently been developed by the company Life Science Methods. Nevertheless, an anesthesia step is necessary prior to the automatic selection. In the present study, we show that a single-pulse of 90 min of tricaine at the concentration of 1 g/L can be used and is recommended to select H. azteca males manually or automatically using the sorting machine. In the second part, we demonstrate that the machine has the ability to select, sort, and disperse the males of a culture batch of H. azteca as efficiently as manual procedures. In the last part of the study, BCFs of two organic substances were evaluated using the H. azteca bioconcentration test (HYBIT) protocol, with an anesthetizing step and robotic selection compared with manual selection without an anesthetizing step. The different BCF values obtained were in accordance with those indicated in the literature and showed that an anesthetizing step had no effect on the BCF values. Therefore, these data validated the interest in this sorting machine for selecting males to perform bioconcentrations studies with H. azteca. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:1075-1084. © 2023 SETAC.

Highly sensitive and quick in ovo sexing of domestic chicken eggs by two-wavelength fluorescence spectroscopy.

The in ovo sexing of chicken eggs is a current task and a prerequisite to overcome the mass killing of male day-old chicks from laying lines. Although various methods have been developed and tested in recent years, practicable methods for sex determination are still missing which can be applicated in poultry hatcheries before the chicken embryo is capable of nociception and pain sensation. Optical spectroscopic methods enable an early determination of the sex. In this study, a novel method based on two-wavelength in ovo fluorescence excitation is described. More than 1600 eggs were examined. In ovo fluorescence was sequentially excited at 532 nm and 785 nm. The fluorescence intensities of the spectral regions behave inversely with respect to sex. It is shown that the observed sex-related differences in the fluorescence intensities are based on the embryonic hemoglobin synthesis. The accuracy of sex determination is 96% for both sexes. The hatching rate is not reduced compared to an equivalent reference group.

The Use of Levels One and Two Dermatoglyphics for Sex Identification in University of Ibadan Community, Southwest Nigeria.

Dermatoglyphic traits are genetically determined and remain constant until death. Dermatoglyphics features are arranged from patterns, minutiae and ridgeology. This study utilized patterns and minutiae details of fingerprints as a means of sexual differentiation amongst the University of Ibadan community. Three hundred and eighty-four (192 males and 192 females) participants from the University of Ibadan community were recruited using multistage sampling technique. Fingerprints were obtained using fingerprint scanner Dermalog LF10, Hamburg, Germany. GraphPad Prism 7.0 was used for the test of mean of variables. Ulnar loop, whorl and radial loop patterns were found to be predominantly distributed in both male and female in that order. However, the arch pattern was significantly different between female and male. The male subjects had significantly higher total finger ridge count (TFRC). All the analysed minutiae were significantly different between male and female except bridge. The arch pattern, TFRC and level 2 details (minutiae) of dermatoglyphics could be used as markers for sexual differentiation.