Polymeric Caffeic Acid Acts as an Antigen Delivery Carrier for Mucosal Vaccine Formulation by Forming a Complex with an Antigenic Protein.

The development of mucosal vaccines, which can generate antigen-specific immune responses in both the systemic and mucosal compartments, has been recognized as an effective strategy for combating infectious diseases caused by pathogenic microbes. Our recent research has focused on creating a nasal vaccine system in mice using enzymatically polymerized caffeic acid (pCA). However, we do not yet understand the molecular mechanisms by which pCA stimulates antigen-specific mucosal immune responses. In this study, we hypothesized that pCA might activate mucosal immunity at the site of administration based on our previous findings that pCA possesses immune-activating properties. However, contrary to our initial hypothesis, the intranasal administration of pCA did not enhance the expression of various genes involved in mucosal immune responses, including the enhancement of IgA responses. Therefore, we investigated whether pCA forms a complex with antigenic proteins and enhances antigen delivery to mucosal dendritic cells located in the lamina propria beneath the mucosal epithelial layer. Data from gel filtration chromatography indicated that pCA forms a complex with the antigenic protein ovalbumin (OVA). Furthermore, we examined the promotion of OVA delivery to nasal mucosal dendritic cells (mDCs) after the intranasal administration of pCA in combination with OVA and found that OVA uptake by mDCs was increased. Therefore, the data from gel filtration chromatography and flow cytometry imply that pCA enhances antigen-specific antibody production in both mucosal and systemic compartments by serving as an antigen-delivery vehicle.

Effects of Outdoor-Grown Royal Sun Medicinal Mushroom Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (Agaricomycetes) Fruiting Body on Canine Malassezia Dermatitis.

Brazil-grown outdoor-cultivated Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 fruiting body (KA21) significantly increases the production of serum anti-beta-glucan antibody. Therefore, KA21 ingestion may be useful for the prevention and alleviation of fungal infections. This study aimed to determine the effects of KA21 in fungal infections in animals. KA21 was administered to nine dogs infected with Malassezia. Notably, the anti-beta-glucan antibody titer remained unchanged or tended to decrease in the oral steroid arm, whereas in the non-steroid arm, antibody titer increased in almost all animals after KA21 ingestion. Dogs showing improved clinical symptoms exhibited increased anti-beta-glucan antibody titers. The results of this study suggest that KA21 ingestion may alleviate the symptoms of Malassezia and other fungal infections and that continuous ingestion may help prolong recurrence-free intervals. Additionally, the ingestion of KA21 during oral steroid dosage reduction or discontinuation may enable smoother steroid withdrawal.

Refinement and complete solution NMR analysis of the structure of a 6-branched 1,3-ß-D-glucan (OL-2) isolate from Omphalialapidescens.

OL-2 is a water-soluble ß-glucan produced by Omphalia lapidescens. This versatile glucan has potential applications in various industries, including food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. In addition, OL-2 is known for its promising applications as a biomaterial and drug, owing to its reported antitumor and antiseptic properties. Although the biological activities of ß-glucans vary depending on their primary structure, holistic clarification of OL-2 via solution NMR spectroscopy to ascertain its complete and unambiguous structure has not yet been achieved. In this study, a chain of solution NMR techniques, such as correlation spectroscopy, total correlation spectroscopy (TOCSY), nuclear Overhauser effect and exchange spectroscopy, 13C-edited heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC), HSQC-TOCSY, heteronuclear multiple bond correlation, and heteronuclear 2-bond correlation pulse sequences were used to unambiguously assign all 1H and 13C atoms in OL-2. Based on our investigation, OL-2 consists of a 1,3-ß-glucan backbone chain decorated with a single 6-branched ß-glucosyl side unit on every fourth residue.

Potentiation of Antitumor Activity by Antibody Drugs and Mushroom-Derived ß-Glucans in Natural Killer Cell-Mediated Tumoricidal Activities against Non-Hodgkin's B-Cell Lymphoma.

ß-glucans are polysaccharides that activate innate immunity. We herein investigated whether P-glucans promote the immunological effects of antibody drugs against malignant tumor cells using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Rituximab bound to CD20-specific lymphoma and exhibited cytotoxic activity in the presence of human mononuclear cells, but not neutrophils. The addition of Sparassis crispa (cauliflower mushroom)-derived ß-glucan (SCG) and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) to co-cultures of PBMCs and Raji lymphoma cells further promoted antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). The GM-CSF treatment increased ß-glucan receptor expression on adherent cells in PBMCs. A co-stimulation with GM-CSF and SCG of PBMCs induced an increase in the number of spreading cells and the activation of natural killer (NK) cells. The enhancement in ADCC was abolished by the removal of NK cells, indicating that SCG and GM-CSF increased ADCC against lymphoma by activating ß-glucan receptor-expressing cells in PBMCs and enhancing NK cell activity. The synergistic mechanisms of action of mushroom-derived ß-glucans and biopharmaceuticals, including recombinant cytokines and antibodies, in the treatment of malignant tumor cells provide important insights into the clinical efficacy of ß-glucans from mushrooms.

Blocking Dectin-1 prevents colorectal tumorigenesis by suppressing prostaglandin E2 production in myeloid-derived suppressor cells and enhancing IL-22 binding protein expression.

Dectin-1 (gene Clec7a), a receptor for ß-glucans, plays important roles in the host defense against fungi and immune homeostasis of the intestine. Although this molecule is also suggested to be involved in the regulation of tumorigenesis, the role in intestinal tumor development remains to be elucidated. In this study, we find that azoxymethane-dextran-sodium-sulfate-induced and ApcMin-induced intestinal tumorigenesis are suppressed in Clec7a-/- mice independently from commensal microbiota. Dectin-1 is preferentially expressed on myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). In the Clec7a-/- mouse colon, the proportion of MDSCs and MDSC-derived prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels are reduced, while the expression of IL-22 binding protein (IL-22BP; gene Il22ra2) is upregulated. Dectin-1 signaling induces PGE2-synthesizing enzymes and PGE2 suppresses Il22ra2 expression in vitro and in vivo. Administration of short chain ß-glucan laminarin, an antagonist of Dectin-1, suppresses the development of mouse colorectal tumors. Furthermore, in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC), the expression of CLEC7A is also observed in MDSCs and correlated with the death rate and tumor severity. Dectin-1 signaling upregulates PGE2-synthesizing enzyme expression and PGE2 suppresses IL22RA2 expression in human CRC-infiltrating cells. These observations indicate a role of the Dectin-1-PGE2-IL-22BP axis in regulating intestinal tumorigenesis, suggesting Dectin-1 as a potential target for CRC therapy.

Binding assay of human Dectin-1 variants for DNA/ ß-glucan complex for active-targeting delivery of antisense DNA: Part II.

A ß-1,3-glucan binding receptor called Dectin-1 is mainly expressed on antigen-presenting immunocytes. Dectin-1 may be a target molecule for receptor-mediated and active-targeting delivery of drugs to regulate or interfere with the immune system. Therapeutic oligonucleotides are one such drug of interest. To this end, we have been studying the complex of schizophyllan (SPG, one of the linear (1,3)-ß-ᴅ-glucan family) with oligonucleotide and its delivery mechanism to the Dectin-1 expressing cells. There are at least six types of human Dectin-1 expressed on the cell surface (designated V-1, V-2, etc.), with V-1 having a complete carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) and stalk, V-2 having a complete CRD but no stalk, and other variants having an incomplete CRD due to exon skipping. Our previous studies have shown that SPG binds only to V-1 and V-2. By contrast, SPG/oligonucleotide complexes bind both V-1 and V-2 more strongly than SPG itself and show a certain affinity, for other variants. As a continuing work, the present paper discusses the structure and nature of all human Dectin-1 variants expressed on the cellular surface. we found that (1) a new N-linked glycosylation site is present in some variants, (2) the glycosylation of Dectin-1 plays an important role in the fate of Dectin-1 and its localization in the cells, and (3) the glycosylation is related to the amount of ingestion of the complex. The present findings suggest that, in addition to V-1 and V-2, two other variants that are highly expressed at the plasma membrane and stabilized by the glycosylation may also be targets of the complex.

Dectin-1 Reactivity to Paramylon Derived from Euglena gracilis EOD-1.

Euglena gracilis is a microalga that has recently attracted attention because of its bioactivities. Paramylon (PM), a major ß-1,3-glucan, constitutes 70-80% of the cells of the E. gracilis EOD-1 strain. Dectin-1 is a pattern recognition receptor that recognizes ß-glucan. However, it is unclear whether PM binds to dectin-1. In this study, we investigated the reactivity of EOD1PM with dectin-1 by analyzing the binding of soluble murine and human dectin-1-Fc fusion protein (m dectin-1 Fc, h dectin-1 Fc) to EOD1PM using flow cytometry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). m Dectin-1 Fc bound to EOD1PM particles when m dectin-1-Fc is added. Furthermore, the binding specificity was examined in a competitive reaction following addition of a soluble antigen. It was found that the binding of m dectin-1-Fc to EOD1PM was not inhibited by the addition of dextran or ovalbumin but by the addition of solubilized EOD1PM or Candida cell wall- solubilized ß-glucan. In addition, the h dectin-1-Fc fusion protein was found to specifically bind to EOD1PM. These results suggest that dectin-1 recognizes and binds to the ß-glucan structure of EOD1PM. Dectin-1 is expressed in leukocytes as a ß-glucan receptor and is involved in the expression of various biological activities; therefore, the dectin-1 pathway may be involved in the biological activity of EOD1PM.

Functionally modified chitotriosidase catalytic domain for chitin detection based on split-luciferase complementation.

In this study, we applied a luciferase-fragment complementation assay for chitin detection. When luciferase-fragment fused chitin-binding proteins were mixed with chitin, the reconstituted luciferase became active. The recombinant chitin-binding domain (CBD) and a functionally modified catalytic domain (CatD) of human chitotriosidase were employed for this method. We designed the CatD mutant as a chitin-binding protein with diminished chitinolytic activity. The non-wash assay using the CatD mutant had higher sensitivity than CBD for chitin detection and proved to be a structure-specific biosensor for chitin, including crude biomolecules (from fungi, mites, and cockroaches). The CatD mutant recognized a chitin-tetramer as the minimal binding unit and bound chitin at KD 99 nM. Furthermore, a sandwich ELISA using modified CatD showed a low limit of quantification for soluble chitin (13.6 pg/mL). Altogether, our work shows a reliable method for chitin detection using the potential capabilities of CatD.

Jerveratrum-Type Steroidal Alkaloids Inhibit ß-1,6-Glucan Biosynthesis in Fungal Cell Walls.

The limited number of available effective agents necessitates the development of new antifungals. We report that jervine, a jerveratrum-type steroidal alkaloid isolated from Veratrum californicum, has antifungal activity. Phenotypic comparisons of cell wall mutants, K1 killer toxin susceptibility testing, and quantification of cell wall components revealed that ß-1,6-glucan biosynthesis was significantly inhibited by jervine. Temperature-sensitive mutants defective in essential genes involved in ß-1,6-glucan biosynthesis, including BIG1, KEG1, KRE5, KRE9, and ROT1, were hypersensitive to jervine. In contrast, point mutations in KRE6 or its paralog SKN1 produced jervine resistance, suggesting that jervine targets Kre6 and Skn1. Jervine exhibited broad-spectrum antifungal activity and was effective against human-pathogenic fungi, including Candida parapsilosis and Candida krusei. It was also effective against phytopathogenic fungi, including Botrytis cinerea and Puccinia recondita. Jervine exerted a synergistic effect with fluconazole. Therefore, jervine, a jerveratrum-type steroidal alkaloid used in pharmaceutical products, represents a new class of antifungals active against mycoses and plant-pathogenic fungi. IMPORTANCE Non-Candida albicans Candida species (NCAC) are on the rise as a cause of mycosis. Many antifungal drugs are less effective against NCAC, limiting the available therapeutic agents. Here, we report that jervine, a jerveratrum-type steroidal alkaloid, is effective against NCAC and phytopathogenic fungi. Jervine acts on Kre6 and Skn1, which are involved in ß-1,6-glucan biosynthesis. The skeleton of jerveratrum-type steroidal alkaloids has been well studied, and more recently, their anticancer properties have been investigated. Therefore, jerveratrum-type alkaloids could potentially be applied as treatments for fungal infections and cancer.

Recombinant Human Soluble Thrombomodulin Suppresses Arteritis in a Mouse Model of Kawasaki Disease.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Kawasaki disease (KD) is associated with diffuse and systemic vasculitis of unknown aetiology and primarily affects infants and children. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) treatment reduces the risk of developing coronary aneurysms, but some children have IVIG-resistant KD, which increases their risk of developing coronary artery injury. Here, we investigated the effect of recombinant human soluble thrombomodulin (rTM), which has anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective properties on the development of coronary arteritis in a mouse model of vasculitis. METHODS: An animal model of KD-like vasculitis was created by injecting mice with Candida albicans water-soluble fraction (CAWS). This model was used to investigate the mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-10, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and tissue factor (TF), in addition to histopathology of heart tissues. RESULTS: rTM treatment significantly reduces cardiac vascular endothelium hypertrophy by 34 days after CAWS treatment. In addition, mRNA expression analysis revealed that rTM administration increased cardiac IL-10 expression until day 27, whereas expression of TNF-α was unaffected. Moreover, in the spleen, rTM treatment restores IL-10 and TF expression to normal levels. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that rTM suppresses CAWS-induced vasculitis by upregulating IL-10. Therefore, rTM may be an effective treatment for KD.

Diagnostic Challenge and Therapeutic Approaches in Human Sepsis Based on the Appearance of Endotoxemia and Beta-d-Glucanemia.

Circulating endotoxin, also called lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and (1→3)-ß-d-Glucan (ß-d-glucan), major constituents of bacterial and fungal cell walls, respectively, are determined as biomarkers for Gram-negative sepsis and invasive fungal diseases [...].

Development of a Highly Sensitive ß-Glucan Detection System Using Scanning Single-Molecule Counting Method.

To overcome the limitations of the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay method for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infection, we applied a reaction system combining recombinant ß-glucan binding proteins and a scanning single-molecule counting (SSMC) method. A novel (1→3)-ß-D-glucan recognition protein (S-BGRP) and a (1→6)-ß-glucanase mutant protein were prepared and tested for the binding of (1→6)-branched (1→3)-ß-D-glucan from fungi. S-BGRP and (1→6)-ß-glucanase mutant proteins reacted with ß-glucan from Candida and Aspergillus spp. Although LAL cross-reacted with plant-derived ß-glucans, the new detection system using the SSMC method showed low sensitivity to plant (1→3)-ß-D-glucan, which significantly improved the appearance of false positives, a recognized problem with the LAL method. Measurement of ß-glucan levels by the SSMC method using recombinant ß-glucan-binding proteins may be useful for the diagnosis of fungal infections. This study shows that this detection system could be a new alternative diagnostic method to the LAL method.

Polymeric Caffeic Acid Acts as a Nasal Vaccine Formulation against Streptococcus pneumoniae Infections in Mice.

Infectious diseases are the second leading cause of death worldwide, highlighting the importance of the development of a novel and improved strategy for fighting pathogenic microbes. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a highly pathogenic bacteria that causes pneumonia with high mortality rates, especially in children and elderly individuals. To solve these issues, a mucosal vaccine system would be the best solution for the prevention and treatment of these diseases. We have recently reported that enzymatically polymerized caffeic acid (pCA) acts as a mucosal adjuvant when co-administered with antigenic proteins via the nasal route. Moreover, the sources of caffeic acid and horseradish peroxidase are ingredients found commonly in coffee beans and horseradish, respectively. In this study, we aimed to develop a pneumococcal nasal vaccine comprising pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) and pCA as the mucosal adjuvant. Intranasal immunization with PspA and pCA induced the production of PspA-specific antibody responses in the mucosal and systemic compartments. Furthermore, the protective effects were tested in a murine model of S. pneumoniae infection. Intranasal vaccination conferred antigen-dependent protective immunity against a lethal infection of S. pneumoniae. In conclusion, pCA is useful as a serotype-independent universal nasal pneumococcal vaccine formulation.

Binding Specificity of a New Artificial ß-Glucan Recognition Protein and Its Application to ß-Glucan Detection in Mushroom Extracts.

ß-1,3-D-glucan (BG) activates innate immunity and enhances immune responses. Fungi, such as mushrooms, produce a relatively large amount of BG, the structure and molecular weight of which varies depending on the species of fungi. This study was conducted to develop a detection probe for quantifying or detecting BG from fungi using BG-binding proteins. The binding properties of a new ß-glucan recognition protein (BGRP) against various BGs were compared. With reference to the amino acid sequences of BGRP in insects, an artificial BGRP (supBGRP) was designed with higher production efficiency using gene recombination technology. SupBGRP was produced in Escherichia coli with high efficiency, and its reactivity with BG from fungi was the highest among the BG-binding proteins examined. SupBGRP exhibited high reactivity with 1,6-branched BG and will be useful for the quantification and detection of fungal BG.

Possibility of Japanese Cedar Pollen Causing False Positives in the Deep Mycosis Test.

Because Japanese cedar pollen (JCP) contains beta-1,3-d-glucan (BG), there is concern that its lingering presence in the atmosphere, especially during its scattering period, may cause false positives in the factor-G-based Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay used to test for deep mycosis (i.e., G-test). Hence, we examined whether the LAL assay would react positively with substances contained in JCP by using the G-test to measure JCP particles and extracts. BG was purified from the JCP extract on a BG-specific affinity column, and the percentage extractability was measured using three different BG-specific quantitative methods. The G-test detected 0.4 pg BG in a single JCP particle and 10 fg from a single particle in the extract. The percentage extractability of JCP-derived BG was not significantly different among the three quantitative methods. As the JCP particles should technically have been removed during serum separation, they should be less likely to be a direct false-positive factor. However, given that the LAL-assay-positive substances in the JCP extract were not distinguishable by the three BG-specific quantitative methods, we conclude that they may cause the background to rise. Therefore, in Japan false positives arising from JCP contamination should be considered when testing patients for deep mycosis.

Open-Label Study of the Influence of Food Containing the Royal Sun Mushroom, Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (Agaricomycetes), on ß-Glucan-Specific Antibody Production in Healthy Human Volunteers.

The edible mushroom Agaricus brasiliensis contains a large amount ß-glucan, which is mainly composed of a ß-1,6-glucan structure. In this study, we investigated the effect of A. brasiliensis strain KA21 on the anti-ß-glucan antibody titer in healthy humans and the role of antibodies as an immunomodulator. Twenty-two healthy volunteers were fed the dried fruiting body of A. brasiliensis (900 or 1500 mg/day) for 12 weeks. The anti-ß-glucan antibody titer in the serum was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) against ß-glucan was significantly upregulated after intake of A. brasiliensis. Murine experiments demonstrated improvement of anti-ß-glucan antibody production after intraperitoneal injection of Agaricus-derived ß-glucan. To understand the role of antibody against ß-glucan in exclusion of pathogenic fungi, we examined the interaction between HL-60 cells and antibody-treated heat-killed Candida albicans. Flow cytometry analysis indicated the upregulation of Candida-positive HL-60 cells after treatment with human IgG, whereas the competitive assay demonstrated that the main epitope of Candida-reacted IgG was the ß-1,6-glucan structure. Binding between HL-60 and IgG-opsonized C. albicans was suppressed by anti-Fcγ receptor 1 (FcγRI) neutralizing antibody. Finally, using FcγRI-expressed cells with the nuclear factor of activated T-cell reporter assay, we demonstrated that higher titers of anti-ß-glucan IgG can induce stronger Fc receptor-mediated cell activation through the formation of an antibody-ß-glucan complex. In conclusion, oral ingestion of A. brasiliensis KA21 promotes anti-ß-glucan antibody production and may contribute to preventing fungal infection through the activation of immune cells by forming antibody-ß-glucan complexes via an FcγR-dependent pathway.

Split Enzyme-Based Biosensors for Structural Characterization of Soluble and Insoluble ß-Glucans.

ß-Glucan is widely distributed in various plants and microorganisms and is composed of ß-1,3-linked d-glucose units. It may have a branched short or long side chain of glucose units with ß-1,6- or ß-1,4-linkage. Numerous studies have investigated different ß-glucans and revealed their bioactivities. To understand the structure-function relationship of ß-glucan, we constructed a split-luciferase complementation assay for the structural analysis of long-chain ß-1,6-branched ß-1,3-glucan. The N- and C-terminal fragments of luciferase from deep-sea shrimp were fused to insect-derived ß-1,3-glucan recognition protein and fungal endo-ß-1,6-glucanase (Neg1)-derived ß-1,6-glucan recognition protein, respectively. In this approach, two ß-glucan recognition proteins bound to ß-glucan molecules come into close proximity, resulting in the assembly of the full-length reporter enzyme and induction of transient luciferase activity, indicative of the structure of ß-glucan. To test the applicability of this assay, ß-glucan and two ß-glucan recognition proteins were mixed, resulting in an increase in the luminescence intensity in a ß-1,3-glucan with a long polymer of ß-1,6-glucan in a dose-dependent manner. This simple test also allows the monitoring of real-time changes in the side chain structure and serves as a convenient method to distinguish between ß-1,3-glucan and long-chain ß-1,6-branched ß-1,3-glucan in various soluble and insoluble ß-glucans.

Latent 1,3-ß-D-glucan acts as an adjuvant for allergen-specific IgE production induced by Japanese cedar pollen exposure.

BACKGROUND: The pollen grains of several plant species contain 1,3-ß-D-glucan (BG). BG activates dendritic cells (DCs) and subsequently regulates the innate immune responses. Within Japan, the most common disease associated with type-I hypersensitivity is Japanese cedar pollinosis. However, the role of BG in Japanese cedar pollen (JCP) remains unclear. This study examined the localization and immunological effects of BG in JCP. METHODS: The localization of BG in JCP grain was determined by immunohistochemical staining using a soluble dectin-1 protein probe and a BG recognition protein (BGRP). The content of BG extracted from JCP was measured by a BGRP-based ELISA-like assay. The cytokine production by bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) obtained from wild-type and BG receptor (dectin-1) knock-out mice was examined in vitro. The mice were intranasally administered JCP grains and the specific serum Ig levels were then quantified. RESULTS: BG was detected in the exine and cell wall of the generative cell and tube cell of the JCP grain. Moreover, BG in the exine stimulated production of TNF-α and IL-6 in the BMDCs via a dectin-1-dependent mechanism. Meanwhile, JCP-specific IgE and IgG were detected in the serum of wild-type mice that had been intranasally administered with JCP grains. These mice also exhibited significantly enhanced sneezing behavior. However, dectin-1 knock-out mice exhibited significantly lower JCP-specific IgE and IgG levels compared to wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS: Latent BG in JCP can act as an adjuvant to induce JCP-specific antibody production via dectin-1.

Schizophyllum commune ß-glucan: Effect on interleukin-10 expression induced by lipopolysaccharide from periodontopathic bacteria.

ß-glucans are potent immunomodulators, with effects on innate and adaptive immune responses via dectin-1 as the main receptor. In this study, we investigated the biological effect of ß-glucan from Schizophyllum commune, called Schizophyllan (SPG) on Interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression induced by a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans in murine macrophages (J774.1). SPG and dectin-1 interaction up-regulates LPS-induced IL-10 expression. The regulative effect of SPG on IL-10 expression is dependent on prolongation of nuclear translocation activity of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κBα) pathway induced by LPS. We also found that LPS-induced phosphorylation of mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase 1 (MSK1) and cAMP-responsive-element-binding protein (CREB), followed by up-regulation of IL-10, was stimulated by SPG priming via activation of the spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk). Our data indicate that SPG augments the anti-inflammatory response in murine macrophages which can be useful to create an intervention for periodontal disease treatment.

Dectin-1-mediated suppression of RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis by glucan from baker's yeast.

Immunoreceptors expressed on osteoclast precursor cells modify osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption activity. Dectin-1 is a lectin receptor of ß-glucan and is specifically expressed in osteoclast precursor cells. In this study, we evaluated the bioactivity of ß-glucan on receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis and observed that glucan from baker's yeast inhibited this process in mouse bone marrow cells and dectin-1-overexpressing RAW264.7 (d-RAW) cells. In conjunction, RANKL-induced nuclear factor of activated T cell c1 expression was suppressed, subsequently downregulating TRAP and Oc-stamp. Additionally, nuclear factor-kappa B activation and the expression of c-fos and Blimp1 were reduced in d-RAW cells. Furthermore, glucan from baker's yeast induced the degradation of Syk protein, essential factor for osteoclastogenesis. These results suggest that glucan from baker's yeast suppresses RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and can be applied as a new treatment strategy for bone-related diseases.