Evaluating the effect of glycation on lipase activity using boronate affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry.

Protein glycation may occur naturally when reducing sugars and proteins coexist, which is often the case for industrial enzymes. The impact of post-translational modifications on enzyme performance (e.g., stability or function) is often not predictable, highlighting the importance of having appropriate analytical methodologies to monitor the influence of glycation on performance. Here, a boronate affinity chromatography method was developed to enrich glycated species followed by mass spectrometry for structural characterization and activity assays for functional assessment. This approach was applied to a (temperature-stressed) lipase used for food applications revealing that storage at -20 °C and 4 °C resulted in minor glycation (below 9%), whereas storage at 25 °C led to a higher glycation level with up to four sugars per lipase molecule. Remarkably, activity measurements revealed that glycation did not reduce lipase activity or stability. Altogether, this novel strategy is a helpful extension to the current analytical toolbox supporting development of enzyme products.

Native Structural and Functional Proteoform Characterization of the Prolyl-Alanyl-Specific Endoprotease EndoPro from Aspergillus niger.

The prolyl-alanyl-specific endoprotease (EndoPro) is an industrial enzyme produced in Aspergillus niger. EndoPro is mainly used for food applications but also as a protease in proteomics. In-depth characterization of this enzyme is essential to understand its structural features and functionality. However, there is a lack of analytical methods capable of maintaining both the structural and functional integrity of separated proteoforms. In this study, we developed an anion exchange (AEX) method coupled to native mass spectrometry (MS) for profiling EndoPro proteoforms. Moreover, we investigated purified EndoPro proteoforms with complementary MS-based approaches, including released N-glycan and glycopeptide analysis, to obtain a comprehensive overview of the structural heterogeneity. We showed that EndoPro has at least three sequence variants and seven N-glycosylation sites occupied by high-mannose glycans that can be phosphorylated. Each glycosylation site showed high microheterogeneity with ∼20 glycans per site. The functional characterization of fractionated proteoforms revealed that EndoPro proteoforms remained active after AEX-separation and the specificity of these proteoforms did not depend on N-glycan phosphorylation. Nevertheless, our data confirmed a strong pH dependence of EndoPro cleavage activity. Altogether, our study demonstrates that AEX-MS is an excellent tool to characterize complex industrial enzymes under native conditions.

Targeting proline in (phospho)proteomics.

Mass spectrometry-based proteomics experiments typically start with the digestion of proteins using trypsin, chosen because of its high specificity, availability, and ease of use. It has become apparent that the sole use of trypsin may impose certain limits on our ability to grasp the full proteome, missing out particular sites of post-translational modifications, protein segments, or even subsets of proteins. To tackle this problem, alternative proteases have been introduced and shown to lead to an increase in the detectable (phospho)proteome. Here, we argue that there may be further room for improvement and explore the protease EndoPro. For optimal peptide identification rates, we explored multiple peptide fragmentation techniques (HCD, ETD, and EThcD) and employed Byonic as search algorithm. We obtain peptide IDs for about 40% of the MS2 spectra (66% for trypsin). EndoPro cleaves with high specificity at the C-terminal site of Pro and Ala residues and displays activity in a broad pH range, where we focused on its performance at pH = 2 and 5.5. The proteome coverage of EndoPro at these two pH values is rather distinct, and also complementary to the coverage obtained with trypsin. As about 40% of mammalian protein phosphorylations are proline-directed, we also explored the performance of EndoPro in phosphoproteomics. EndoPro extends the coverable phosphoproteome substantially, whereby both the, at pH = 2 and 5.5, acquired phosphoproteomes are complementary to each other and to the phosphoproteome obtained using trypsin. Hence, EndoPro is a powerful tool to exploit in (phospho)proteomics applications.

Aspergillus niger Prolyl Endoprotease for Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry and Protein Structural Studies.

To monitor the structural integrity of therapeutic proteins, hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) is increasingly utilized in the pharmaceutical industry. The successful outcome of HDX-MS analyses depends on the sample preparation conditions, which involve the rapid digestion of proteins at 0 °C and pH 2.5. Very few proteases are able to withstand such harsh conditions, with pepsin being the best-known exception, even though its activity is also strongly reduced at 0 °C. Here, we evaluate the usage of a prolyl endopeptidase from Aspergillus niger (An-PEP) for HDX-MS. What makes this protease very attractive is that it cleaves preferentially the hardest to digest amino acid, proline. To our surprise, and in contrast to previous reports, An-PEP activity was found optimal around pH 2.5 and could be further enhanced by urea up to 40%. Under typical HDX-MS conditions and using small amounts of enzyme, An-PEP generated an equivalent number of peptides as pepsin, as exemplified by using the two model systems tetrameric human hemoglobin (Hb) and human IgG4. Interestingly, because An-PEP peptides are shorter than pepsin-generated peptides, higher sequence resolution could be achieved, especially for Pro-containing protein regions in the alpha subunit of Hb, revealing new protected Hb regions that were not observed with pepsin. Due to its Pro-preference and resistance to low pH, we conclude that An-PEP is an archetype enzyme for HDX-MS, highly complementary to pepsin, and especially promising for structural studies on Pro-rich proteins or proteins containing Pro-rich binding domains involved in cellular signaling.

Metabolic Engineering toward Sustainable Production of Nylon-6.

Nylon-6 is a bulk polymer used for many applications. It consists of the non-natural building block 6-aminocaproic acid, the linear form of caprolactam. Via a retro-synthetic approach, two synthetic pathways were identified for the fermentative production of 6-aminocaproic acid. Both pathways require yet unreported novel biocatalytic steps. We demonstrated proof of these bioconversions by in vitro enzyme assays with a set of selected candidate proteins expressed in Escherichia coli. One of the biosynthetic pathways starts with 2-oxoglutarate and contains bioconversions of the ketoacid elongation pathway known from methanogenic archaea. This pathway was selected for implementation in E. coli and yielded 6-aminocaproic acid at levels up to 160 mg/L in lab-scale batch fermentations. The total amount of 6-aminocaproic acid and related intermediates generated by this pathway exceeded 2 g/L in lab-scale fed-batch fermentations, indicating its potential for further optimization toward large-scale sustainable production of nylon-6.

Engineering Bacillus subtilis for the conversion of the antimetabolite 4-hydroxy-l-threonine to pyridoxine.

Until now, pyridoxine (PN), the most commonly supplemented B6 vitamer for animals and humans, is chemically synthesized for commercial purposes. Thus, the development of a microbial fermentation process is of great interest for the biotech industry. Recently, we constructed a Bacillus subtilis strain that formed significant amounts of PN via a non-native deoxyxylulose 5'-phosphate-(DXP)-dependent vitamin B6 pathway. Here we report the optimization of the condensing reaction of this pathway that consists of the 4-hydroxy-l-threonine-phosphate dehydrogenase PdxA, the pyridoxine 5'-phosphate synthase PdxJ and the native DXP synthase, Dxs. To allow feeding of high amounts of 4-hydroxy-threonine (4-HO-Thr) that can be converted to PN by B. subtilis overexpressing PdxA and PdxJ, we first adapted the bacteria to tolerate the antimetabolite 4-HO-Thr. The adapted bacteria produced 28-34mg/l PN from 4-HO-Thr while the wild-type parent produced only 12mg/l PN. Moreover, by expressing different pdxA and pdxJ alleles in the adapted strain we identified a better combination of PdxA and PdxJ enzymes than reported previously, and the resulting strain produced 65mg/l PN. To further enhance productivity mutants were isolated that efficiently take up and convert deoxyxylulose (DX) to DXP, which is incorporated into PN. Although these mutants were very efficient to convert low amount of exogenous DX, at higher DX levels they performed only slightly better. The present study uncovered several enzymes with promiscuous activity and it revealed that host metabolic pathways compete with the heterologous pathway for 4-HO-Thr. Moreover, the study revealed that the B. subtilis genome is quite flexible with respect to adaptive mutations, a property, which is very important for strain engineering.

Systems approaches to predict the functions of glycoside hydrolases during the life cycle of Aspergillus niger using developmental mutants ∆brlA and ∆flbA.

BACKGROUND: The filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger encounters carbon starvation in nature as well as during industrial fermentations. In response, regulatory networks initiate and control autolysis and sporulation. Carbohydrate-active enzymes play an important role in these processes, for example by modifying cell walls during spore cell wall biogenesis or in cell wall degradation connected to autolysis. RESULTS: In this study, we used developmental mutants (ΔflbA and ΔbrlA) which are characterized by an aconidial phenotype when grown on a plate, but also in bioreactor-controlled submerged cultivations during carbon starvation. By comparing the transcriptomes, proteomes, enzyme activities and the fungal cell wall compositions of a wild type A. niger strain and these developmental mutants during carbon starvation, a global overview of the function of carbohydrate-active enzymes is provided. Seven genes encoding carbohydrate-active enzymes, including cfcA, were expressed during starvation in all strains; they may encode enzymes involved in cell wall recycling. Genes expressed in the wild-type during starvation, but not in the developmental mutants are likely involved in conidiogenesis. Eighteen of such genes were identified, including characterized sporulation-specific chitinases and An15g02350, member of the recently identified carbohydrate-active enzyme family AA11. Eight of the eighteen genes were also expressed, independent of FlbA or BrlA, in vegetative mycelium, indicating that they also have a role during vegetative growth. The ΔflbA strain had a reduced specific growth rate, an increased chitin content of the cell wall and specific expression of genes that are induced in response to cell wall stress, indicating that integrity of the cell wall of strain ΔflbA is reduced. CONCLUSION: The combination of the developmental mutants ΔflbA and ΔbrlA resulted in the identification of enzymes involved in cell wall recycling and sporulation-specific cell wall modification, which contributes to understanding cell wall remodeling mechanisms during development.

Engineering acetyl coenzyme A supply: functional expression of a bacterial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in the cytosol of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The energetic (ATP) cost of biochemical pathways critically determines the maximum yield of metabolites of vital or commercial relevance. Cytosolic acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) is a key precursor for biosynthesis in eukaryotes and for many industrially relevant product pathways that have been introduced into Saccharomyces cerevisiae, such as isoprenoids or lipids. In this yeast, synthesis of cytosolic acetyl-CoA via acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACS) involves hydrolysis of ATP to AMP and pyrophosphate. Here, we demonstrate that expression and assembly in the yeast cytosol of an ATP-independent pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) from Enterococcus faecalis can fully replace the ACS-dependent pathway for cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthesis. In vivo activity of E. faecalis PDH required simultaneous expression of E. faecalis genes encoding its E1α, E1ß, E2, and E3 subunits, as well as genes involved in lipoylation of E2, and addition of lipoate to growth media. A strain lacking ACS that expressed these E. faecalis genes grew at near-wild-type rates on glucose synthetic medium supplemented with lipoate, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. A physiological comparison of the engineered strain and an isogenic Acs(+) reference strain showed small differences in biomass yields and metabolic fluxes. Cellular fractionation and gel filtration studies revealed that the E. faecalis PDH subunits were assembled in the yeast cytosol, with a subunit ratio and enzyme activity similar to values reported for PDH purified from E. faecalis. This study indicates that cytosolic expression and assembly of PDH in eukaryotic industrial microorganisms is a promising option for minimizing the energy costs of precursor supply in acetyl-CoA-dependent product pathways. Importance: Genetically engineered microorganisms are intensively investigated and applied for production of biofuels and chemicals from renewable sugars. To make such processes economically and environmentally sustainable, the energy (ATP) costs for product formation from sugar must be minimized. Here, we focus on an important ATP-requiring process in baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): synthesis of cytosolic acetyl coenzyme A, a key precursor for many industrially important products, ranging from biofuels to fragrances. We demonstrate that pyruvate dehydrogenase from the bacterium Enterococcus faecalis, a huge enzyme complex with a size similar to that of a ribosome, can be functionally expressed and assembled in the cytosol of baker's yeast. Moreover, we show that this ATP-independent mechanism for cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthesis can entirely replace the ATP-costly native yeast pathway. This work provides metabolic engineers with a new option to optimize the performance of baker's yeast as a "cell factory" for sustainable production of fuels and chemicals.

Sample preparation and biostatistics for integrated genomics approaches.

Genomics is based on the ability to determine the transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome of a cell. These technologies only have added value when they are integrated and based on robust and reproducible workflows. This chapter describes the experimental design, sampling, sample pretreatment, data evaluation, integration, and interpretation. The actual generation of the data is not covered in this chapter since it is highly depended on available equipment and infrastructure. The enormous amount of data generated by these technologies are integrated and interpreted inorder to generate leads for strain and process improvement. Biostatistics are becoming very important for the whole work flow therefore, some general recommendations how to set up experimental design and how to use biostatistics in enhancing the quality of the data and the selection of biological relevant leads for strain engineering and target identification are described.

Searching for microbial protein over-expression in a complex matrix using automated high throughput MS-based proteomics tools.

In the discovery of new enzymes genomic and cDNA expression libraries containing thousands of differential clones are generated to obtain biodiversity. These libraries need to be screened for the activity of interest. Removing so-called empty and redundant clones significantly reduces the size of these expression libraries and therefore speeds up new enzyme discovery. Here, we present a sensitive, generic workflow for high throughput screening of successful microbial protein over-expression in microtiter plates containing a complex matrix based on mass spectrometry techniques. MALDI-LTQ-Orbitrap screening followed by principal component analysis and peptide mass fingerprinting was developed to obtain a throughput of ∼12,000 samples per week. Alternatively, a UHPLC-MS(2) approach including MS(2) protein identification was developed for microorganisms with a complex protein secretome with a throughput of ∼2000 samples per week. TCA-induced protein precipitation enhanced by addition of bovine serum albumin is used for protein purification prior to MS detection. We show that this generic workflow can effectively reduce large expression libraries from fungi and bacteria to their minimal size by detection of successful protein over-expression using MS.

Is proteomics a reliable tool to probe the oxidative folding of bacterial membrane proteins?

The oxidative folding of proteins involves disulfide bond formation, which is usually catalyzed by thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases (TDORs). In bacteria, this process takes place in the cytoplasmic membrane and other extracytoplasmic compartments. While it is relatively easy to study oxidative folding of water-soluble proteins on a proteome-wide scale, this has remained a major challenge for membrane proteins due to their high hydrophobicity. Here, we have assessed whether proteomic techniques can be applied to probe the oxidative folding of membrane proteins using the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis as a model organism. Specifically, we investigated the membrane proteome of a B. subtilis bdbCD mutant strain, which lacks the primary TDOR pair BdbC and BdbD, by gel-free mass spectrometry. In total, 18 membrane-associated proteins showed differing behavior in the bdbCD mutant and the parental strain. These included the ProA protein involved in osmoprotection. Consistent with the absence of ProA, the bdbCD mutant was found to be sensitive to osmotic shock. We hypothesize that membrane proteomics is a potentially effective approach to profile oxidative folding of bacterial membrane proteins.

Fungal α-arabinofuranosidases of glycosyl hydrolase families 51 and 54 show a dual arabinofuranosyl- and galactofuranosyl-hydrolyzing activity.

Aspergillus niger possesses a galactofuranosidase activity, however, the corresponding enzyme or gene encoding this enzyme has never been identified. As evidence is mounting that enzymes exist with affinity for both arabinofuranose and galactofuranose, we investigated the possibility that α-L-arabinofuranosidases, encoded by the abfA and abfB genes, are responsible for the galactofuranosidase activity of A. niger. Characterization of the recombinant AbfA and AbfB proteins revealed that both enzymes do not only hydrolyze p-nitrophenyl-α-L-arabinofuranoside (pNp-α-Araf) but are also capable of hydrolyzing p-nitrophenyl-ß-D-galactofuranoside (pNp-ß-Galf). Molecular modeling of the AbfB protein with pNp-ß-Galf confirmed the possibility for AbfB to interact with this substrate, similarly as with pNp-α-Araf. We also show that galactomannan, a cell wall compound of A. niger, containing ß-linked terminal and internal galactofuranosyl moieties, can be degraded by an enzyme activity that is present in the supernatant of inulin-grown A. niger. Interestingly, purified AbfA and AbfB did not show this hydrolyzing activity toward A. nigergalactomannan. In summary, our studies demonstrate that AbfA and AbfB, α-L-arabinofuranosidases from different families, both contain a galactofuranose (Galf)-hydrolyzing activity. In addition, our data support the presence of a Galf-hydrolase activity expressed by A. niger that is capable of degrading fungal galactomannan.

The carbon starvation response of Aspergillus niger during submerged cultivation: insights from the transcriptome and secretome.

BACKGROUND: Filamentous fungi are confronted with changes and limitations of their carbon source during growth in their natural habitats and during industrial applications. To survive life-threatening starvation conditions, carbon from endogenous resources becomes mobilized to fuel maintenance and self-propagation. Key to understand the underlying cellular processes is the system-wide analysis of fungal starvation responses in a temporal and spatial resolution. The knowledge deduced is important for the development of optimized industrial production processes. RESULTS: This study describes the physiological, morphological and genome-wide transcriptional changes caused by prolonged carbon starvation during submerged batch cultivation of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger. Bioreactor cultivation supported highly reproducible growth conditions and monitoring of physiological parameters. Changes in hyphal growth and morphology were analyzed at distinct cultivation phases using automated image analysis. The Affymetrix GeneChip platform was used to establish genome-wide transcriptional profiles for three selected time points during prolonged carbon starvation. Compared to the exponential growth transcriptome, about 50% (7,292) of all genes displayed differential gene expression during at least one of the starvation time points. Enrichment analysis of Gene Ontology, Pfam domain and KEGG pathway annotations uncovered autophagy and asexual reproduction as major global transcriptional trends. Induced transcription of genes encoding hydrolytic enzymes was accompanied by increased secretion of hydrolases including chitinases, glucanases, proteases and phospholipases as identified by mass spectrometry. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first system-wide analysis of the carbon starvation response in a filamentous fungus. Morphological, transcriptomic and secretomic analyses identified key events important for fungal survival and their chronology. The dataset obtained forms a comprehensive framework for further elucidation of the interrelation and interplay of the individual cellular events involved.

Peroxicretion: a novel secretion pathway in the eukaryotic cell.

BACKGROUND: Enzyme production in microbial cells has been limited to secreted enzymes or intracellular enzymes followed by expensive down stream processing. Extracellular enzymes consists mainly of hydrolases while intracellular enzymes exhibit a much broader diversity. If these intracellular enzymes could be secreted by the cell the potential of industrial applications of enzymes would be enlarged. Therefore a novel secretion pathway for intracellular proteins was developed, using peroxisomes as secretion vesicles. RESULTS: Peroxisomes were decorated with a Golgi derived v-SNARE using a peroxisomal membrane protein as an anchor. This allowed the peroxisomes to fuse with the plasma membrane. Intracellular proteins were transported into the peroxisomes by adding a peroxisomal import signal (SKL tag). The proteins which were imported in the peroxisomes, were released into the extra-cellular space through this artificial secretion pathway which was designated peroxicretion. This concept was supported by electron microscopy studies. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that it is possible to reroute the intracellular trafficking of vesicles by changing the localisation of SNARE molecules, this approach can be used in in vivo biological studies to clarify the different control mechanisms regulating intracellular membrane trafficking. In addition we demonstrate peroxicretion of a diverse set of intracellular proteins. Therefore, we anticipate that the concept of peroxicretion may revolutionize the production of intracellular proteins from fungi and other microbial cells, as well as from mammalian cells.

Effective lead selection for improved protein production in Aspergillus niger based on integrated genomics.

The filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger is widely exploited for industrial production of enzymes and organic acids. An integrated genomics approach was developed to determine cellular responses of A. niger to protein production in well-controlled fermentations. Different protein extraction methods in combination with automated sample processing and protein identification allowed quantitative analysis of 898 proteins. Three different enzyme overproducing strains were compared to their isogenic fungal host strains. Clear differences in response to the amount and nature of the overproduced enzymes were observed. The corresponding genes of the differentially expressed proteins were studied using transcriptomics. Genes that were up-regulated both at the proteome and transcriptome level were selected as leads for generic strain improvement. Up-regulated proteins included proteins involved in carbon and nitrogen metabolism as well as (oxidative) stress response, and proteins involved in protein folding and endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD). Reduction of protein degradation through the removal of the ERAD factor doaA combined with overexpression of the oligosaccharyl transferase sttC in A. niger overproducing beta-glucuronidase (GUS) strains indeed resulted in a small increase in GUS expression.