Progress on deer genome research.

Deer family is one of the most abundant mammalian families in the world. Deer species are distributed in wide geographic ranges including the North Pole, tropical regions and high-altitude mountains. Of these deer species, China accounts for more than 40% of them and is the main site for deer evolution. Besides the common phenotypical attributes for ruminants, deer family is evolved to possess the unique head gears with periodic regeneration, i.e. antlers. It is currently well accepted that deer is a very valuable model for the studies of ecology, behavior, evolution and biology, especially for the study of mammalian organ regeneration. Reference deer genome is the basis for systematically illustrating deer evolution, deciphering unique biological attributes of deer species, and is significant in protection and utilization of deer genetic resources. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the field of deer genome research, including data of deer genetic variation, molecular basis of adaptive evolution, and key genes and functional genomics involved in deer antler origin and evolution. The overall aim of the paper is to provide the reference neccessary for in depth investigation of deer species.

Expression and Functional Analysis of Tumor-Related Factor S100A4 in Antler Stem Cells.

Annual antler renewal is a stem cell-based epimorphic process driven by antler stem cells (ASCs) resident in antlerogenic periosteum (AP). Antlerogenic periosteal cells express a high level of S100A4, a metastasis-associated protein, which intrigued us to explore what role S100A4 could play in antler regeneration. The present study set out to investigate expression and effects of S100A4 in the ASCs and their progeny. The results showed that not only did cells from the AP express a high level of S100A4, but also the pedicle periosteum and the antler growth center. In the antler growth center, we found S100A4-positive cells were specifically located in blood vessel walls and in vascularized areas. In vitro, recombinant deer S100A4 protein stimulated the proliferation of the AP cells, promoted proliferation, migration and tube formation of human vascular endothelial cells, and enhanced migration of Hela cells, but not AP cells. These findings demonstrated that S100A4 in the ASCs may play a significant role in stimulating angiogenesis, proliferation, but not motility, of ASCs. Deer antlers offer a unique model to explore how rapid cell proliferation with a high level of S100A4 expression is elegantly regulated without becoming cancerous.

Transcriptome analysis of sika deer in China.

Sika deer is of great commercial value because their antlers are used in tonics and alternative medicine and their meat is healthy and delicious. The goal of this study was to generate transcript sequences from sika deer for functional genomic analyses and to identify the transcripts that demonstrate tissue-specific, age-dependent differential expression patterns. These sequences could enhance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying sika deer growth and development. In the present study, we performed de novo transcriptome assembly and profiling analysis across ten tissue types and four developmental stages (juvenile, adolescent, adult, and aged) of sika deer, using Illumina paired-end tag (PET) sequencing technology. A total of 1,752,253 contigs with an average length of 799 bp were generated, from which 1,348,618 unigenes with an average length of 590 bp were defined. Approximately 33.2 % of these (447,931 unigenes) were then annotated in public protein databases. Many sika deer tissue-specific, age-dependent unigenes were identified. The testes have the largest number of tissue-enriched unigenes, and some of them were prone to develop new functions for other tissues. Additionally, our transcriptome revealed that the juvenile-adolescent transition was the most complex and important stage of the sika deer life cycle. The present work represents the first multiple tissue transcriptome analysis of sika deer across four developmental stages. The generated data not only provide a functional genomics resource for future biological research on sika deer but also guide the selection and manipulation of genes controlling growth and development.

Prevalence, risk factors and molecular characterization of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in five provinces of Northern China.

The disease microsporidiosis is found worldwide and is mainly caused by Enterocytozoon bieneusi. E. bieneusi can infect a wide range of hosts; however, information regarding the prevalence and genotyping of E. bieneusi infection in raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is limited. Therefore, in 2015, we examined 305 faecel samples from 80 farmed raccoon dogs in Jilin Province, from 54 in Hebei Province, from 72 in Liaoning Province, from 29 in Shandong Province, and from 40 in Heilongjiang Province. The overall prevalence of E. bieneusi infection in farmed raccoon dogs was 22.30%. Logistic regression analysis suggests that age, gender and region of raccoon dogs were highly related to the prevalence of E. bieneusi infection. Moreover, six E. bieneusi internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region sequences, including four known genotypes, namely D, CHN-DC1, NCF2, and CHN-F1, and two novel genotypes (NCR1 and NCR2), were identified in the present study. The present study firstly indicated the existence of E. bieneusi genotypes NCF2, NCR1, NCR2and CHN-F1 in infected raccoon dogs in Northern China. Integrated control strategies should be implemented to limit E. bieneusi infection in farmed raccoon dogs, and to prevent transmission of this disease to other animals and humans.

Novel amdoparvovirus infecting farmed raccoon dogs and arctic foxes.

A new amdoparvovirus, named raccoon dog and fox amdoparvovirus (RFAV), was identified in farmed sick raccoon dogs and arctic foxes. Phylogenetic analyses showed that RFAV belongs to a new species within the genus Amdoparvovirus of the family Parvoviridae. An RFAV strain was isolated in Crandell feline kidney cell culture.