Skeletal age determinations in children of European and African descent: applicability of the Greulich and Pyle standards.

This study assesses the value of the Greulich and Pyle method in determining the skeletal ages of healthy American children of European and African descent born after the year 1980. The hand and wrist radiographs of 534 children (265 boys, 269 girls; 260 European-Americans [EA], 274 African-Americans [AA]), ages 0 to 19 y, were analyzed by two experienced pediatric radiologists blinded to the chronological age of the subjects. A difference score was calculated for each subject by subtracting chronological age from the mean bone ages scores provided by the two raters. One group t-tests were performed to verify the hypothesis that the mean difference score was equal to zero. Skeletal age determinations by the two radiologists showed a high degree of agreement by intraclass correlation coefficient (r = 0.994). The range of values for differences in skeletal and chronological ages was very wide, indicating great individual variability. Comparisons between skeletal and chronological age only reached statistical significance in EA prepubertal girls, whose skeletal ages were delayed, on average, by three months (t = -2.9; p = 0.005). Mean difference between skeletal and chronological age in prepubertal children of African descent was 0.09 +/- 0.66 y, while that in children of European descent was -0.17 +/- 0.67 y; (t = 3.13; p = 0.0019). On average, the bone ages of 10% of all prepubertal AA children were 2 SD above the normative data in the Greulich and Pyle atlas, while the bone ages of 8% of all prepubertal EA children were 2 SD below. In contrast to the racial differences observed in prepubertal children, EA postpubertal males had significantly greater values for bone age than AA postpubertal males (t = 2.03; p = 0.05). In conclusion, variations in skeletal maturation in prepubertal children are greater than those reflected in the Greulich and Pyle atlas; prepubertal American children of European descent have significantly delayed skeletal maturation when compared with those of African descent; and, postpubertal EA males have significantly advanced skeletal maturation when compared with postpubertal AA males. New standards are needed to make clinical decisions that require reliable bone ages and to accurately represent a multiethnic pediatric population.

Chronic radiographic lung changes in children with vertically transmitted HIV-1 infection.

OBJECTIVE: We prospectively studied children with and without maternally transmitted HIV-1 infection born to mothers infected with HIV-1 to determine the incidence of chronic radiographic lung changes (CRC) and to correlate these changes with clinical assessments. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Between 1990 and 1997, we scored 3050 chest radiographs using a standardized form. Group I children (n = 201) were HIV-1-infected at enrollment. Group II children (n = 512) were enrolled prenatally or before 28 days postpartum and subsequently subdivided into group IIa (n = 86), children identified as HIV-1-infected; and group IIb (n = 426), those who were HIV-1-uninfected. CRC were defined as parenchymal consolidations or nodular disease lasting 3 months or more or increased bronchovascular markings or reticular densities lasting 6 months or more. Morbidity was assessed by CD4 counts, viral load, the presence of low oxygen saturation, wheezing, tachypnea, crackles, and clubbing. RESULTS: The cumulative incidence of chronic radiographic lung changes in HIV-1-infected children was 32.8% by 4 years old, with increased bronchovascular markings or reticular densities being most common. Chronic changes were associated with lower CD4 cell counts and higher viral loads. Resolution of these chronic changes was associated with decreasing CD4 cell counts but not with lower rates of clinical findings, viral load, or difference in survival. CONCLUSION: With increased survival, CRC are becoming more common. The resolution of these changes may indicate immunologic deterioration rather than clinical improvement.

Avascular necrosis of the femoral head in children with chronic renal disease.

PURPOSE: To determine the incidence of avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head in children with chronic renal failure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Pelvic radiographs in 205 children (age range, 6 months to 16 years; mean age, 6 years +/- 3.5 [SD]) with chronic renal failure were reviewed. Serial radiographs were obtained every 6 months for 1-7 years (mean, 3 years +/- 2) to assess the presence of AVN of the femoral head; six children had metabolic renal disease, 21 had acquired renal disease, and 178 had structural renal lesions. RESULTS: Radiographic findings of AVN were seen in 14 of 205 patients (approximately one in every 15). The frequency of AVN was similar in boys and girls; AVN was observed in 11 (6.9%) of 159 boys and in three (6.5%) of 46 girls and was not related to the duration of renal disease, type of renal disease, or growth hormone therapy. Affected children were frequently asymptomatic, and, when present, the clinical complaints were mild. In two instances, AVN developed while the patients were receiving corticosteroids before entering this study. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that AVN of the femoral head is a frequent complication in children with chronic renal failure, occurring in approximately 7% of this population. Unlike Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, AVN in children with chronic renal failure is frequently asymptomatic and has no sex predilection.

Pulmonary emboli following therapeutic embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations in children.

BACKGROUND: Reports of the complicating side effect of pulmonary embolism (PE) following endovascular therapy of cerebral arteriovenous malformations (AVM) in children have been limited in number. Details of its occurrence are yet to be fully elucidated. OBJECTIVE: The hypothesis is that inadvertent pulmonary migration of embolic material is common and may go unrecognized. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty-seven patients (ages 1 day to 16 years and 11 months) underwent embolization of a cerebral AVM with at least one material (cyanoacrylate, platinum coils, detachable balloons, polyvinyl alcohol particles). The medical records and chest radiographs were reviewed retrospectively. Chest radiographs were available in 34 patients. The radiographs were analyzed for the presence or absence of foreign material in the lungs. RESULTS: The chest radiographs in 12 patients (35%) showed pulmonary deposits of embolic material; cyanoacrylate in 10 patients and platinum coils in 2. Two of the patients with cyanoacrylate deposits in the lungs developed respiratory distress that required endotracheal intubation. The patients gradually improved after a time period of 7-10 days with conservative treatment. CONCLUSION: PE is not an uncommon complication in children undergoing embolization of brain AVM. Although usually asymptomatic, PE may cause severe symptoms.

Cardiac electron-beam CT in children undergoing surgical repair for pulmonary atresia.

PURPOSE: To study whether electron-beam computed tomography (CT) is as accurate as conventional angiocardiography for the characterization of the true pulmonary arteries and the aortopulmonary collateral vessels in children undergoing surgical correction for pulmonary atresia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-three children with pulmonary atresia underwent 48 cardiac-triggered dynamic contrast material-enhanced electron-beam CT studies. Correlation was made with surgical findings in all patients and with 34 cineangiocardiograms. Data from reconstructed electron-beam CT images and cineangiocardiograms were reviewed for the presence, caliber, and origin of true pulmonary arteries and aortopulmonary collateral vessels; for stenosis; for thrombosis; and for the patency of vascular conduits and shunts. RESULTS: Electron-beam CT was more sensitive than angiography in the identification of hypoplastic and/or nonconfluent branch pulmonary arteries, coronary anomalies, conduit and shunt thrombosis, and other postoperative complications, but it was less sensitive in the demonstration of stenoses at collateral vascular origins and anastomoses. Overall test parameters for electron-beam CT and angiography to characterize pulmonary vascularity were similar (sensitivity, 0.94 vs 0.90; specificity, 0.99 for both; accuracy, 0.97 vs 0.95). Three-dimensional reconstructions, although they were helpful in conveying electron-beam CT findings to referring cardiologists and surgeons, did not add diagnostic information to that displayed on images of the transverse sections. CONCLUSION: Electron-beam CT complements conventional diagnostic angiocardiography in preoperative evaluation, especially in the detection of hypoplastic pulmonary arteries. It is well suited for postoperative shunt surveillance.

Three-dimensional helical CT of pulmonary arteries in infants and children with congenital heart disease.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to determine the value of three-dimensional reconstructed helical CT in the assessment of the pulmonary arteries in infants and children with complex congenital heart disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty patients were examined with contrast-enhanced helical CT. Three-dimensional reconstructions were performed with multiplanar reformations, maximum intensity projection, and shaded-surface display. Correlation was made with 19 echocardiograms and 14 cineangiocardiograms. All imaging studies were reviewed independently for the following parameters: the caliber of the main and branch pulmonary arteries and their confluence, the presence of stenosis, the number and caliber of aortopulmonary collaterals, and the patency of vascular shunts and conduits. Surgical confirmation, which was used as the reference standard, was available in all patients. RESULTS: Helical CT was as accurate as angiocardiography in revealing stenotic and nonconfluent central pulmonary arteries and in revealing aortopulmonary collaterals (overall CT test parameters: sensitivity, 90%; specificity, 100%; accuracy, 93%).Three-dimensional rendition did not improve the accuracy of CT. The patency of shunts was shown equally well with CT as with angiography, but CT showed thrombosis more directly. Echocardiography was the least accurate technique in revealing pulmonary artery anatomy (accuracy, 65%), primarily because a relatively large number of studies were technically unsatisfactory to assess the study parameters. CONCLUSION: Helical CT angiocardiography with three-dimensional reconstruction is superior to echocardiography for the noninvasive assessment of pulmonary artery anatomy in patients with complex congenital heart disease. Helical CT may be used as a complementary technique and occasionally as a substitute for the diagnostic imaging portion of cardiac catheterization with cineangiocardiography.

Noonan syndrome associated with neuroblastoma: a case report.

We report a case of a child with Noonan phenotype and incidental radiographic findings of mediastinal neuroblastoma. Recent studies have reported an increased association of Noonan syndrome with some malignancies, and the case we present here is the first reported case to our knowledge of an association of neuroblastoma with Noonan syndrome.

Chest radiographic data acquisition and quality assurance in multicenter studies.

BACKGROUND: Multicenter studies rely on data derived from different institutions. Forms can be designed to standardize the reporting process allowing reliable comparison of data. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the report is to provide a standardized method, developed as a part of a multicenter study of vertically transmitted HIV, for assessing chest radiographic results. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eight hundred and five infants and children were studied at five centers; 3057 chest radiographs were scored. Data were entered using a forced-choice, graded response for 12 findings. Quality assurance measures and inter-rater agreement statistics are reported. RESULTS: The form used for reporting chest radiographic results is presented. Inter-rater agreement was moderate to high for most findings, with the best correlation reported for the presence of bronchovascular markings and/or reticular densities addressed as a composite question (kappa = 0.71). The presence of nodular densities (kappa = 0.56) and parenchymal consolidation (kappa = 0.57) had moderate agreement. Agreement for lung volume was low. CONCLUSION: The current tool, developed for use in the pediatric population, is applicable to any study involving the assessment of pediatric chest radiographs for a large population, whether at one or many centers.

MR imaging of the pediatric pelvis.

A brief description of normal MR anatomy is presented, followed by a discussion of the main indications for MR imaging of the pelvis in children. The evaluation of congenital anomalies of the genital tract in boys and girls, including ectopic testes, abnormalities of the uterus and vagina, and of the anorectal region, are reviewed. A discussion of the role of MR imaging in evaluating the internal characteristics and extent of benign and malignant pelvic masses is included. The main indications for MR of the pelvis in children are discussed, after a brief description of normal anatomy.

Normal US appearance of ovaries and uterus in four patients with Turner's syndrome and 45,X karyotype.

Pelvic ultrasonographic (US) studies of four patients (ages 11-19 years) with Turner s syndrome, 45,X karyotype, and normal ovarian function were reviewed. All four had persistent menses, spontaneous breast development, and normal follicular stimulant hormone (FSH) serum concentrations. The US studies depicted normal postpubertal uterus and normal-sized ovaries with follicles. In three patients, ovaries were seen bilaterally, while in one only one gonad was identified. Radiologists should be aware that patients with Turner s syndrome, even with a single X chromosome, may occasionally have normal genital development.

Decreased cortical and increased cancellous bone in two children with primary hyperparathyroidism.

The basis for this study is two children with primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) who radiographically manifested both marked subperiosteal resorption and prominent osteosclerosis. We hypothesize that the parathyroid hormone (PTH) elevation not only increased osteoclastic resorption of cortical bone but also simultaneously enhanced cancellous bone formation, giving rise to osteosclerosis. In this report, we describe the changes in trabecular and cortical bone density, as measured by quantitative computed tomography (QCT), in these two young patients with severe PHPT, before and after removal of a parathyroid adenoma. Before surgery, the radiographic findings of subperiosteal resorption and osteosclerosis were associated with low cortical and high cancellous bone density values in both children. Within 1 week of surgery, both cortical and cancellous bone density values increased and serum concentrations of calcium and, to a lesser degree, phosphorus decreased due to the "hungry bone syndrome." Twelve weeks after parathyroidectomy, QCT bone density values and skeletal radiographs were normal in both patients. The findings suggest that in patients with severe PHPT, the catabolic effect of PTH on cortical bone may be associated with a simultaneous anabolic effect on cancellous bone, and PTH may cause a significant redistribution of bone mineral from cortical to cancellous bone.

The value of portal vein pulsatility on duplex sonograms as a sign of portal hypertension in children with liver disease.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the significance of portal vein pulsatility on duplex Doppler waveforms in children with end-stage hepatic failure undergoing liver transplantation. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Thirty-eight children with end-stage hepatic decompensation were examined with color-assisted spectral Doppler waveform analysis of the hepatic artery and the portal vein. Correlation was made with age, duration of illness, clinical and pathologic diagnosis, and presence of portal hypertension. Findings were compared with those for six patients with acute viral hepatitis and 12 healthy control subjects. RESULTS: Portal vein pulsatility was noted in all 36 patients in whom portal vein flow was detected by Doppler imaging. The majority of these (34) had clinical or sonographic evidence of portal hypertension. In two patients, no portal vein flow was identified in the liver hilum; both had a large portosystemic shunt through collaterals or surgical graft. Significantly increased pulsatility of the hepatic artery waveform (resistive index [RI] = 0.89 +/- 0.15, p < .0001) was seen in patients with end-stage liver disease. In contrast, no portal vein pulsatility and normal hepatic artery pulsatility (RI = 0.60 +/- 0.11) was noted in all patients with acute hepatitis and control subjects. CONCLUSION: Portal vein waveform pulsatility is 94% sensitive and 90% specific for portal hypertension in end-stage liver disease.

Imaging of the adrenal gland in children.

Ultrasonography (US), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging have replaced intravenous urography and angiography in evaluation of children with suspected disease of the adrenal glands. Although the spatial resolution of MR imaging is still somewhat inferior to that of CT, it allows tissue characterization and better evaluation of tumor extension owing to its multiplanar imaging capability. Initial diagnosis of an adrenal mass in a child is made with US, which is also used to document regression of uncomplicated neonatal adrenal hemorrhage. MR imaging is used for evaluation of tumor extension when surgery is to be performed. Imaging findings such as size, shape, and signal intensity are often not specific for a pathologic condition and must be interpreted in conjunction with the patient's age, the clinical history (eg, trauma), results of physical examination (eg, palpable mass or presence of an endocrine syndrome), and hormone levels in blood and urine.

Gender differences in vertebral body sizes in children and adolescents.

PURPOSE: To determine whether differences in vertebral bone densities or sizes account for gender differences in skeletal mass during growth. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Quantitative computed tomography (CT) was used to measure the densities of cortical and cancellous bone and dimensions of the lumbar vertebral bodies in 196 healthy children and adolescents, ages 4-20 years. RESULTS: Neither cancellous nor cortical bone densities differed between boys and girls with age or level of sexual development. In contrast, the cross-sectional areas of the vertebral bodies were greater in boys than girls throughout childhood and adolescence. Even when prepubertal children were matched for chronologic age, bone age, height, and weight, the size of the vertebral bodies was 17% greater in boys. This disparity in vertebral body size increased with level of sexual development and was greatest at sexual maturity. CONCLUSION: Lower vertebral bone mass of women as compared with men may result from early gender differences in the sizes of bones rather than differences in bone densities.

Gender differences in vertebral sizes in adults: biomechanical implications.

PURPOSE: To determine if vertebral bone densities or vertebral body sizes contribute to gender differences in vertebral bone mass in adults. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cancellous and cortical bone densities and dimensions of three lumbar vertebrae in 25 women and 18 men were measured with quantitative computed tomography (CT) and statistically analyzed. RESULTS: Neither cancellous nor cortical vertebral bone densities differed in healthy adults. Vertebral bodies in women had lower cross-sectional areas (8.22 cm2 +/- 1.09 [standard deviation] versus 10.98 cm2 +/- 1.25, P < .001) and volumes (22.42 cm3 +/- 2.40 versus 30.86 cm3 +/- 2.6, P < .001). These differences also were evident in men and women matched for age, weight, vertebral bone density, and vertebral body height. Overall cross-sectional areas of vertebral bodies are 25% smaller in women than men. Vertebral bone densities do not differ between sexes. Estimates of mechanical stress within vertebral bodies are 30%-40% higher in women than men for equivalent applied loads. CONCLUSION: Smaller vertebral bodies in women confer biomechanical disadvantages that may contribute to more vertebral fractures in elderly women.

Five years experience with recombinant human growth hormone treatment of children with chronic renal failure.

11 males, aged 2.5-16.3 years (6.8 +/- 4.1) with growth retardation (Standard Deviation Score--SDS > -2.00) consequent to chronic renal failure (CRF) received recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) for 18 to 60 mo (40.9 +/- 15.4). Growth velocity (GV) increased from 5.4 +/- 2.2 for the year prior to rhGH to 8.9 +/- 1.6 (p = 0.00001), 7.4 +/- 1.7 (p < 0.03), 7.6 +/- 1.6 (p < 0.006), 6.5 +/- 1.0 (p < 0.05) and 7.5 +/- 1.3 (p = NS) cm/yr following 12, 24, 36, 48 and 60 mo respectively of treatment. The mean SDS for height decreased from -3.21 at baseline to -0.85 at 60 mo (p = 0.0004); 7 of 8 pts treated for > 36 mo had a SDS more positive than -2.00; 3 reached the 50th percentile on the growth curve. In 2 patients the dosage was doubled to achieve the increase in GV; in one patient it took 5 yrs to reach a SDS more positive than -2.00. A significant increase in weight gain and mid-arm muscle circumference over baseline values were indicative of the anabolic effect of rhGH. The mean increase in bone age was similar to the increase in chronologic age; the delta bone age-delta height age was not significant indicating no loss of growth potential following rhGH. Although 3 patients required the initiation of dialysis following rhGH treatment, the mean calculated creatinine clearance did not decrease significantly. No significant adverse effects were noted. These data indicate that long-term rhGH treatment is effective in improving the GV of children with CRF and facilitating catch-up growth without loss of growth potential.

Imaging in pediatric liver transplantation.

Liver transplantation is an accepted and successful mode of treatment for pediatric end-stage liver disease. On the basis of a review of 229 liver transplantations in 185 children, the authors describe the imaging findings of the preoperative evaluation, the uncomplicated transplantation, various postoperative complications, and the suggested percutaneous treatment of some of these complications. The most frequent indications for liver transplantation encountered in this review were biliary atresia (52%), acute fulminant hepatic failure (11%), alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency (9%), cryptogenic cirrhosis (6%), and chronic active hepatitis (4%). (The remaining 18% were various rare indications, representing < 4% each.) Routine Doppler ultrasound is the modality of choice for the screening of postoperative complications, supplemented with computed tomography, hepatobiliary scintigraphy, and cholangiography or angiography as needed. Familiarity with the normal graft appearance, as influenced by various surgical and technical factors, and knowledge of the underlying condition of the patient and the clinical course of postoperative complications are crucial for a correct interpretation of the findings from imaging studies.

Pediatric intracranial vascular malformations: evaluation of treatment results with color Doppler US. Work in progress.

To determine the value of color Doppler ultrasound (US) in the preoperative assessment and evaluation of treatment results in children with intracranial vascular malformations (VMs), the authors performed 36 color Doppler US studies in nine children who underwent endovascular embolization. Color flow imaging with spectral waveform analysis of feeding arteries, nidus, draining veins, and uninvolved cranial vasculature was performed, and correlation was made with other imaging findings. In most VMs, color Doppler US enabled the authors to map the lesion completely. Hemodynamic changes after embolization included improvement in blood supply to uninvolved portions of the brain and increase in caliber and flow of feeding vessels that were not occluded during embolization. Serial volume flow measurements were performed with Doppler US in major extracranial arteries. Success of embolization was indicated by substantial decrease of total carotid artery flow. Color Doppler US is a noninvasive modality that adds important imaging and hemodynamic data to those provided by angiography.

Subperiosteal resorption: effect of full-frame image compression of hand radiographs on diagnostic accuracy.

Image compression is essential to handle a large volume of digital images, including computed tomographic, magnetic resonance, computed radiographic, and digitized images in a digital radiology operation. Developed during the past few years, full-frame bit allocation performed with the cosine transform technique has been proved to be an excellent irreversible image compression method. This article describes the effect, on the accuracy of diagnosis of subperiosteal resorption, of using the hardware compression module to produce hand radiographs. Receiver operating characteristic analysis of the interpretation of 71 radiographs by five observers demonstrated that there is no statistically significant difference in diagnostic accuracy between the original radiographs and compressed and reconstructed images obtained with a compression ratio as high as 20:1.