An intracameral injection of antigen induces in situ chemokines and cytokines required for the generation of circulating immunoregulatory monocytes.

Anterior Chamber-Associated Immune Deviation (ACAID) induced by an intracameral injection of antigen generates antigen-specific regulatory splenic T cells that suppress specifically cell-mediated immunity specific for the injected antigen. Circulating F4/80(+) cells recovered from mice receiving an intracameral injection of antigen are thought to be ocular in origin and induce the development of thymic and splenic regulatory T cells. We have shown previously that after the intracameral injection of antigen there is a CCR2/CCL2-dependent infiltration of circulating F4/80(+) cells into the anterior chamber associated with the generation of circulating, ACAID-inducing F4/80(+) monocytes. Here we tested the hypothesis that the intracameral injection of antigen induces events in the anterior chamber that are associated with the induction of circulating immunoregulatory monocytes that induce the suppression of cell-mediated immunity. The intracameral injection of antigen resulted in aqueous humor (i) a time- dependent increase of CCL2 and CCL7, (ii) a transient increase in TNF-α, and (iii) an infiltration of CD11b(hi), Gr1(hi) and F4/80(+) as well as F4/80(-) and Gr1(hi) peripheral blood cells into the anterior chamber. Further characterization of these F4/80(+) cells revealed that they are Ly 6C(hi), LY6G(lo) or negative, 7/4 (LY6B)(hi), CD115(+), CD45(+), CD49B(+), and CD62 L(+). Antibody-mediated neutralization of TGF-ß in situ in the anterior chamber prevented the induction of circulating, ACAID-inducing monocytes and ACAID. These cells did not increase in the irides of ACAID-refractory CCR2-/- and CCL2-/- mice that received an intracameral injection of antigen. Our results extend our suggestion that ACAID is initiated as the result of a mild proinflammatory response to intracameral injection that results in the infiltration of a CCR2(+) subset of monocytes into the anterior chamber where there is a TGF-ß-dependent induction of an immunosuppressive phenotype in the infiltrated monocytes that recirculate to induce antigen-specific regulatory T cells.

Immune amplification of murine CD8 suppressor T cells induced via an immune-privileged site: quantifying suppressor T cells functionally.

BACKGROUND: CD8(+) suppressor T cells exert antigen-specific suppression of the expression of hypersensitivity by activated T cells. Therefore, CD8(+) suppressor T cells serve a major regulatory role for the control of active immunity. Accordingly, the number and/or activity of CD8(+) suppressor T cells should be influenced by an immune response to the antigen. To test this hypothesis we used an adoptive transfer assay that measures the suppression of the expression of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) by CD8(+) suppressor T cells to quantify the antigen-specific suppression of DTH by these suppressor T cells. METHODS: Suppressor T cells were induced in the spleens of mice by the injection of antigen into the anterior chamber of an eye. Following this injection, the mice were immunized by the same antigen injected into the anterior chamber. Spleen cells recovered from these mice (AC-SPL cells) were titrated in an adoptive transfer assay to determine the number of AC-SPL cells required to effect a 50% reduction of antigen-induced swelling (Sw50) in the footpad of immunized mice challenged by antigen. RESULTS: Suppression of the expression of DTH is proportional to the number of AC-SPL cells injected into the site challenged by antigen. The number of AC-SPL cells required for a 50% reduction in DTH-induced swelling is reduced by injecting a cell population enriched for CD8(+) AC-SPL cells. Immunizing the mice receiving intracameral antigen to the same antigen decreases the RSw50 of AC-SPL cells required to inhibit the expression of DTH. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide the first quantitative demonstration that the numbers of antigen-specific splenic CD8(+) suppressor T cells are specifically amplified by antigen during an immune response.

Antigen-specific splenic CD4+ and CD8+ regulatory T cells generated via the eye, suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis either at the priming or at the effector phase.

The injection of antigen into the ocular anterior chamber (AC) induces the generation of splenic CD4(+) and CD8(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells, specific for the antigen injected into the AC. These Treg cells inhibit the induction (CD4(+)) and also the expression (CD8(+)) of a delayed-type hypersensitivity response. The ability of AC-induced self-antigen-specific Treg cells in modulating autoimmunity is not well defined. Here we show that an injection of encephalitogenic myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG(35-55)) peptide into the anterior chamber of the eye (AC-MOG), before the induction of or during established experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) induced by MOG(35-55), suppresses the induction or progression of EAE, respectively. CD4(+) or CD8(+) splenic Treg cells induced by an injection of AC-MOG prevent EAE either at the inductive (priming) or at the progressive (effector) phase, respectively. This suppression of EAE by an AC-MOG injection or by intravenous transfer of splenic regulatory cells induced by an AC-MOG injection is specific for the antigen injected into the AC. Additionally, our data suggest that splenic CD8(+) Treg cells that suppress active EAE may use a transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß-dependent suppression mechanism while the suppression of the induction of EAE by the AC-induced CD4(+) Treg cells is independent of TGF-ß. Thus, we show for the first time that regulation of EAE at the priming or the chronic phase requires different phenotypes of Treg cells. Hence, it is important to consider the phenotype of Treg cells while designing effective cell-based therapies against autoimmune disorders.

Paradoxical effect of pertussis toxin on the delayed hypersensitivity response to autoantigens in mice.

BACKGROUND: Pertussis toxin (PTX), an exotoxin of Bordetella pertussis, enhances the development of experimental autoimmune diseases such as experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in rodent models. The mechanisms of the promotion of experimental autoimmune diseases by PTX may be based upon PTX-induced disruption of the blood eye/brain barriers facilitating the infiltration of inflammatory cells, the modulation of inflammatory cell migration and the enhancement of the activation of inflammatory cells. We hypothesized that the facilitation of experimental autoimmunity by PTX suggests that its influence on the in vivo immune response to auto-antigen may differ from its influence on non-self antigens. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have evaluated the effect of PTX on the simultaneous generation of delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses and autoimmune responses to uveitogenic interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein peptide (IRBP161-180), encephalitogenic myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide (MOG35-55) or ovalbumin (OVA). PTX injection of mice immunized to IRBP peptide161-180 led to (i) the development of EAU as shown by histopathology of the retina, (ii) pro-inflammatory cytokine production by splenocytes in response to IRBP peptide161-180, and (iii) symptomatic EAE in mice immunized with encephalitogenic MOG peptide35-55. However, mice that received PTX had a reduced DTH response to IRBP161-180 peptide or MOG peptide35-55 when challenged distal to the site affected by autoreactive T cells. Moreover, footpad challenge with MOG35-55 peptide reduced EAE in mice immunized with MOG peptide. In contrast, the use of PTX when immunizing with OVA protein or an OVA immunogenic peptide did not affect the DTH response to OVA. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The results suggest that that the reduced DTH response in mice receiving PTX may be specific for autoantigens and autoantigen-reactive T cells are diverted away from ectopic sites that received the autoantigen and towards the tissue site of the autoantigen.

Cbl-b(-/-) T cells demonstrate in vivo resistance to regulatory T cells but a context-dependent resistance to TGF-beta.

Cbl-b is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that negatively regulates T cell activation. Cbl-b(-/-) mice develop spontaneous autoimmunity, and Cbl-b dysregulation has been described in both murine and human autoimmune diseases. Although the mechanisms underlying the development of autoimmunity in Cbl-b(-/-) mice are not yet clear, we have reported that Cbl-b(-/-) CD4(+)CD25(-) effector T cells (Teffs) are resistant to CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cell (Treg)-mediated suppression in vitro and have suggested that this may be an important mechanism in the development of autoimmunity. To confirm the relevance of this resistance to autoimmune disease, we now show that Cbl-b(-/-) Teffs are resistant to suppression by Tregs in vivo and that this involves a resistance of truly naive Cbl-b(-/-) Teffs. Additionally, we show that Cbl-b(-/-) Tregs are fully functional in vivo, further suggesting that the regulatory abnormalities in Cbl-b(-/-) mice are related to defects in Teff, not Treg, function. To characterize the relevance of TGF-beta sensitivity in Treg resistance, we examined in vivo Th17 generation and report that Cbl-b(-/-) mice are able to mount a normal Th17 response in vivo. As Cbl-b(-/-) Teffs have been shown to be insensitive to the suppressive effects of TGF-beta in other in vivo models, the present results suggest that Cbl-b(-/-) Teffs demonstrate a context-dependent sensitivity to TGF-beta in vivo. Overall, our results suggest that resistance to Tregs may be a bona fide mechanism underlying autoimmunity and that Cbl-b(-/-) mice offer unique approaches for studying the interrelationships between Treg function, TGF-beta-mediated responses, and the development of autoimmunity.

The Induction of Circulating, ACAID-Inducing Monocytes Requires CCR2/CCL2-Dependent Migration of Circulating F4/80(+) Cells into the Anterior Chamber.

To determine the origin of peripheral blood mononulclear cells (PBMC) that activate regulatory T cells in anterior chamber-associated immune deviation (ACAID), fluorescein-labeled PBMC were intravenously injected into mice before the mice received an intracameral injection of antigen. Six-24 hr after intracameral injection, fluorescein-labeled PBMC increased in the iris. Twenty-four-48 hr labeled cells decreased in the iris and increased in the thymus and spleen. The entry of the labeled PBMC into the anterior chamber and subsequent production of PBMC that transfer ACAID required the expression of CCR2 by the PBMC and the production of the chemokine CCL2 by the recipient of the PBMC. The results suggest that the intracameral injection of antigen induces i) the infiltration of F4/80(+) PBMC into the AC, ii) where these PBMC are converted to a regulatory phenotype, and iii) recirculate to activate T cells that suppress cell-mediated immunity.

The sympathetic nervous system modulates CD4(+)FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells via a TGF-beta-dependent mechanism.

CD4(+)FoxP3(+) Tregs are essential mediators of the peripheral immune response to self-antigens. Accordingly, the homeostatic regulation of Treg activity and number would impact on the immune response to both self- and non-self antigens. Because the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) interacts chemically and physically with the central and peripheral immune system and exerts a direct influence on antigen-presenting cells and effector lymphocytes, we have investigated the effect of chemical ablation of the SNS on the number and function of peripheral Treg. Removal of murine peripheral sympathetic innervation by 6-hydroxydopamine induced an increase in splenic and lymph node CD4(+)FoxP3(+) Tregs by a TGF-beta-dependent mechanism. Further, this increase in Tregs coincides with an inhibition of the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Our results demonstrate that the SNS is an important contributor to the maintenance of peripheral Treg and TGF-beta acts as a bridge between the immune system and the nervous system. Neurological events mediated by the SNS, such as a stress response, may affect the number of T cells that regulate an immune response. Additionally, targeting Tregs via the SNS may be a novel approach to the prevention or treatment of autoimmune diseases.

T cell sensitivity to TGF-beta is required for the effector function but not the generation of splenic CD8+ regulatory T cells induced via the injection of antigen into the anterior chamber.

The introduction of antigen into the anterior chamber (AC) of the eye induces the production of antigen-specific splenic CD8(+) regulatory T cells (AC-SPL cells) that suppress a delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction in immunized mice. Because the generation of these regulatory T cells is also induced by exposure to transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and antigen or F4/80(+) cells exposed to TGF-beta and antigen in vitro, we investigated (i) whether these cells are produced in dominant negative receptor for transforming growth factor beta receptor type II (dnTGFbetaRII) or Cbl-b(-/-) mice whose T cells are resistant to TGF-beta, (ii) whether DTH is suppressed by wild type (WT) CD8(+) AC-SPL cells in Cbl-b(-/-) and dnTGFbetaRII mice and (iii) the effect of antibodies to TGF-beta on the suppression of DTH by CD8(+) AC-SPL cells. DnTGFbetaRII immunized and Cbl-b(-/-) mice produced splenic CD8(+) regulatory cells after the intracameral injection of antigen and immunization. The suppression of a DTH reaction by CD8(+) AC-SPL cells in WT mice was blocked by the local inclusion of antibodies to TGF-beta when WT splenic CD8(+) AC-SPL cells were injected into the DTH reaction site. Moreover, the DTH reaction in immunized dnTGFbetaRII and Cbl-b(-/-) mice was not suppressed by the transfer of WT CD8(+) AC-SPL cells to the site challenged with antigen. In aggregate, these observations suggest that T cell sensitivity to TGF-beta is not an obligate requirement for the in vivo induction of CD8(+) AC-SPL T cells but the suppression of an in vivo DTH reaction by CD8(+) AC-SPL cells is dependent on TGF-beta.

The suppression of hypersensitivity by ocular-induced CD8(+) T cells requires compatibility in the Qa-1 haplotype.

The injection of antigen into the anterior chamber (AC, intracameral injection) of a murine eye induces the generation of splenic CD8(+) regulatory T cells (AC-SPL cells) that effect the antigen-specific suppression of a delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction. Here we show (i) for the first time that the local antigen-specific suppression of DTH-induced swelling in immunized mice either by an intracameral injection of antigen or by the direct injection of CD8(+) AC-SPL cells into an antigen-challenged site is associated with an absence of infiltrated mononuclear cells, (ii) that the local antigen-specific suppression of the DTH reaction by CD8(+) AC-SPL cells requires compatibility between the Qa-1 but not H2 antigen haplotype of the immunized recipient and the injected AC-SPL regulatory T cells, (iii) that the suppression of the DTH reaction by CD8(+) AC-SPL cells requires the expression of Qa-1 but not H2 antigens and is not due to bystander suppression.

Anterior Chamber-Associated Immune Deviation (ACAID): An Acute Response to Ocular Insult Protects from Future Immune-Mediated Damage?

The "immune privilege" that inhibits immune defense mechanisms that could lead to damage to sensitive ocular tissue is based on the expression of immunosuppressive factors on ocular tissue and in ocular fluids. In addition to this environmental protection, the injection of antigen into the anterior chamber or infection in the anterior chamber induces a systemic suppression of potentially damaging cell-mediated and humoral responses to the antigen. Here we discuss evidence that suggests that Anterior Chamber-Associated Immune Deviation (ACAID)(a) is initiated by an ocular response to moderate inflammation that leads to a systemic immunoregulatory response. Injection into the anterior chamber induces a rise in TNF-α and MCP-1 in aqueous humor and an infiltration of circulating F4/80(+) monocytes that home to the iris. The induction of ACAID is dependent on this infiltration of circulating monocytes that eventually emigrate to the thymus and spleen where they induce regulatory T cells that inhibit the inductive or effector phases of a cell-mediated immune response. ACAID therefore protects the eye from the collateral damage of an immune response to infection by suppressing a future potentially damaging response to infection.

Subcutaneous late phase responses are augmented during local inhalational tolerance in a murine asthma model.

Acute exposure of sensitized mice to antigen elicits allergic airway disease (AAD) characterized by Th2 cytokine-dependent pulmonary eosinophilia, methacholine hyperresponsiveness and antigen-specific IgE elevation. However, chronic exposure induces a local inhalational tolerance (LIT), with resolution of the airway responses but persistent systemic IgE production. To further determine if systemic immunologic responses were maintained during LIT, we assessed subcutaneous late phase responses to ovalbumin in this model. Sensitized and AAD mice developed small subcutaneous responses to ovalbumin, with footpad thickness increasing to 113.7 and 113.6% of baseline, respectively. In comparison, LIT mice developed marked foot swelling (141.6%). Histologic examination confirmed increased inflammation in the chronic animals, with a significant contribution by eosinophils. Thus, the resolution of airway inflammatory responses with chronic antigen inhalation is a localized response, not associated with loss of systemic responses to antigen.

Implication for the CD94/NKG2A-Qa-1 system in the generation and function of ocular-induced splenic CD8+ regulatory T cells.

The injection of antigen into the anterior chamber (AC) induces the production of antigen-specific splenic CD8+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) /suppressor T cells that perform the local suppression of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses. Because CD94/NKG2A-Qa-1-dependent interactions have been implicated in CD8+ Treg-mediated immune suppression and DBA/2J mice are deficient in CD94/NKG2R, we have utilized these mice to test the hypothesis that the CD94/NKG2A-Qa-1 system is essential to the induction and immunosuppressive function of CD8+ Tregs in anterior chamber-associated immune deviation (ACAID). We show that: (i) neither ACAID-mediated suppression of DTH to ovalbumin nor splenic Tregs/suppressor T cells was induced in DBA/2J mice that received an injection of antigen into the AC; (ii) splenic CD8+ Tregs from ACAID-induced DBA/2NCr mice suppressed the initiation of DTH when transferred to DBA/2J mice; (iii) following injection of antigen into the AC, intravenous administration of splenocytes or Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC) isolated from DBA/2NCr but not from DBA/2J mice transferred suppression of DTH to DBA/2NCr mice; (iv) antibodies to CD94/NKG2A reduced the ACAID CD8+ T cell-mediated suppression of DTH and (v) The deficiency of such immune regulation in DBA/2J mice also correlated with a decreased number of Qa-1(b+) B cells, F4/80+ cells, a deficient number of CD94/NKG2AR and Qa-1 tetramer binding by CD8+ T cells. These results demonstrate that defective ACAID in DBA/2J mice involves multiple regulatory lesions resulting in a lack of induction of a CD8+ Treg response and possibly defective CD94/NKG2A-dependent suppression of peripheral cell-mediated immunity.

The suppression of delayed-type hypersensitivity by CD8+ regulatory T cells requires interferon-gamma.

CD8(+) regulatory (suppressor) T cells are induced by complex cellular pathways in the spleens of mice that have received an injection of antigen into the anterior chamber (AC) of an eye, an immune-privileged site. Although these CD8(+) regulatory T cells perform an antigen-specific regulatory function for an immune response to self and non-self antigens, the mechanisms of the activation or function of these regulatory cells are not clear. Here, we describe a novel mechanism for the activation of splenic CD8(+) regulatory T cells induced by injection of antigen into the AC. Immunization of mice with trinitrophenyl and bovine serum albumin (TNP-BSA) amplified AC-induced splenic CD8(+) regulatory T cells that suppressed the initiation of contact sensitivity when transferred to immunized, challenged mice. These CD8(+) regulatory T cells were produced independently of perforin, indicating that they are not canonical cytotoxic T cells. Fas ligand (FasL)-deficient CD8(+) regulatory T-cell function was rescued by inclusion of exogenous interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), demonstrating that the expression of FasL by CD8(+) regulatory T cells was dispensable, but IFN-gamma was not. Ultimately, we demonstrated that the generation of these CD8(+) regulatory T cells occurred independently of IFN-gamma, but their suppressor function required IFN-gamma receptor stimulation.

Increased levels of Candida albicans mannan-specific T-cell-derived antigen binding molecules in patients with invasive candidiasis.

In addition to cytokines, CD4+ T cells have been found to secrete soluble, T-cell-derived antigen binding molecules (TABMs). These antigen-specific immunoproteins are thought to have immunoregulatory properties in the suppression of cell-mediated immunity (CMI) because they often associate with interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor beta. Decreased CMI causes susceptibility to infections caused by organisms which are normally nonpathogenic. In this situation, e.g., Candida albicans saprophytism may develop into invasive candidiasis. The difficult diagnosis of invasive candidiasis is based on the findings obtained from blood cultures and with tissue biopsy specimens, with some additional diagnostic value gained by the detection of Candida albicans mannan antigenemia and antimannan antibodies. In the present study, Candida albicans mannan-specific TABM (CAM-TABM) levels in the sera of patients with invasive candidiasis (n = 11), Candida colonization (n = 11) and noncolonization (n = 10), recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (n = 30), and atopic eczema dermatitis syndrome (n = 59) and healthy controls (n = 30) were analyzed. For 14 participants, the effect of mannan stimulation on TABM production and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and IL-4 mRNA expression by peripheral blood lymphocytes was also studied. It was demonstrated that CAM-TABM production was the highest in patients with invasive candidiasis and that CAM-TABM levels could distinguish Candida-colonized patients from noncolonized patients. In addition, the CAM-TABM level was directly related to mRNA expression for IL-4 but not IFN-gamma. These results reinforce the view that TABMs are associated with decreased CMI, immunoregulation, and the T-helper cell 2-type immune response.

New transgenic evidence for a system of sympathetic axons able to express tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) within arterial/arteriolar walls.

Sympathetic axons embedded in a few arterioles and vasa vasora were recently shown to store tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) in vesicles. But the extension of such t-PA axons to arteries and arterioles throughout the organism has not been verified. Confirmation of this anatomy would identify a second significant source of vessel wall t-PA. To visualize fine embedded axons independent of endothelium, we created a transgenic mouse whose expressions of the t-PA promoter and enhanced green fluorescent protein are confined to sympathetic neurons and other neural crest derivatives. Confocal images reveal the extension of t-PA axons to arterioles serving heart, brain, kidney, lung, mesentery, and skin; plus aortic, carotid, and mesenteric artery walls. Ganglion neurons and adrenal chromaffin cells also show strong expressions. These new sightings confirm the existence of a system of t-PA axons that is prominent in arterioles, and compatible with the release of neural t-PA into their walls.

Phenotypic and immunoregulatory characteristics of monocytic iris cells.

The introduction of antigen into the anterior chamber of an eye induces the antigen-specific suppression of cell-mediated immunity and the antigen-induced production of immunoglobulin G2 antibodies. To define further the role of iris monocytic cells in the systemic suppression of cell-mediated immunity that follows the entry of foreign antigen into the anterior chamber, murine iris wholemounts or cell suspensions of iris cells were stained with fluorescent anti-F4/80 and/or anti-CD11c, anti-CD11b antibodies and examined by confocal microscopy or flow cytometry, respectively. Monocytic cells in iris cell suspensions were recovered from mice receiving an injection of trinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (TNP-BSA) into an anterior chamber and Percoll-enriched iris cells separated into cells expressing F4/80 or CD11c were injected intravenously into TNP-BSA-immunized or naive recipients. The recipients were challenged to induce delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) or were provided with splenocytes or thymocytes that transfer the suppression of DTH. The homing of monocytic bone marrow cells to the iris was determined by the intravenous injection of bone marrow cells from green fluorescent protein (GFP)-transgenic donors into C57 mice, and the staining of recipient iris wholemounts with anti-F4/80 antibodies. Iris cells with a dendritic morphology expressing both F4/80 and/or CD11c and CD11b, some cells expressing only F4/80 or CD11c, were detected. The irides of irradiated GFP- mice that received intravenous GFP+ bone marrow cells contained GFP+ F4/80+ cells. F4/80+ and CD11c+ cells from the irides of donors that received intracameral TNP-BSA transferred the suppression of DTH when injected intravenously into TNP-BSA-immunized recipients, activated immunoregulatory thymocytes and activated antigen-specific splenic regulatory effector cells. These results support the hypothesis that iris monocytic cells may participate in the systemic induction of regulatory T cells.

Stimulated release of tissue plasminogen activator from artery wall sympathetic nerves: implications for stress-associated wall damage.

Recurrent stress is clinically associated with early onset hypertension and coronary artery disease. A mechanism linking emotion to pathogenic remodeling of the artery wall has not been identified. Stress stimulates acute regulated release of tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) into the circulation, which is presently attributed to the vascular endothelium. Sympathetic neurons also synthesize t-PA and axonally transport it to the arterial smooth muscle. Unlike release by the endothelium, a stress-stimulated sympathetic discharge would potentially accelerate degradation of the wall matrix by plasmin. To assess whether sympathetic axons are the principal source of acute stress-induced arterial release of t-PA, we compared the output from small densely innervated and large sparsely innervated isolated artery segments before and after sympathetic stimulation, and after ablations. Following phenylephrine infusion densely-innervated microvessels in uveal eyecups were released over 60-fold greater amounts of active t-PA per milligram than the sparsely innervated aorta; and ten-fold more than carotid artery segments. Mesenteric artery release was 4.8-fold greater than release by the carotid artery. In vivo, uveal release of t-PA increased more than three-fold within one minute following superior cervical sympathetic ganglion electrical stimulation, and after phenylephrine, or nicotine infusions of the anterior chamber. Circulating levels of t-PA fell 70% following chemical sympathectomy. We propose that sympathetic nerves are the primary source of stress-induced release of t-PA into and from the densely innervated resistance arteries and arterioles, where dysregulated plasmin-induced proteolysis could damage the wall matrix.

Distribution of sympathetic tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) to a distant microvasculature.

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is the predominant plasminogen activator present in the vascular and nervous systems. Prior studies of the two have emphasized different tPA sources; respectively, endothelium and neurons. A closer relationship is now suggested by evidence that the peripheral sympathetic nervous system synthesizes and infuses enzymatically active tPA into small artery walls and the microcirculation. TPA may thus be the only known neural product able to effect degradation of the artery wall extracellular matrix. This brief review considers historical and current indications for the existence of such an autonomically controlled system and some physiologic implications. Immunohistochemical tPA expression in small arteries and arterioles is more prominent in the outer wall sympathetic axon plexus than in endothelium. Its presence in nerve filaments beneath the seldom-studied adventitia was obscured in earlier localizations. The systemic impact of a neural distribution is suggested by a 60% reduction of blood tPA activity after chemical sympathectomy. TPA-bearing axons extend outward from ganglion neuron cell bodies to reach even thin-walled vasa vasora and uveal microvessels. Ganglion cell bodies synthesize and package tPA in vesicles for the long axoplasmic transport. Densely innervated intact vessels release much greater amounts of tPA in vitro than do larger vessels, indicating a high neuron tPA production capacity and a large storage reservoir available within axon networks. The influence of an autonomically controlled plasmin production within small artery walls on regulation of blood pressure and capillary perfusion awaits further investigation. Its possible role in the pathogenesis of vessel wall matrix degradations in aging, hypertension, and diabetes may also merit further consideration.

Thymocytes induced by antigen injection into the anterior chamber activate splenic CD8+ suppressor cells and enhance the antigen-induced production of immunoglobulin G1 antibodies.

Injection of antigen into the ocular anterior chamber (AC) of a mouse eye (an immunologically privileged site) induces the activation of immunoregulatory NK1.1+, CD4- CD8-, T-cell receptor (TCR) alphabeta+ thymocytes. These thymocytes transfer the suppression of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) when injected into mice sensitized to the same antigen but do not effect the suppression of DTH. On the other hand, the immunized recipients of these transferred thymocytes produce splenic CD8+ T cells that effect the suppression of DTH. However, it is unclear whether the thymocytes transferred from the AC-injected donor differentiate into and/or activate CD8+ T-splenic suppressor cells. We therefore sought to determine the origin of splenic suppressor cells produced in the recipients of immunoregulatory thymocytes transferred from donors that receive an injection of antigen into the AC. CD45.1+ thymocytes from mice that received an AC injection of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNP)-bovine serum albumin (BSA) were transferred to congenic CD45.2+ TNP-BSA-immune recipients. Spleen cells from the recipients were then sorted based on anti-CD45.1 or -CD45.2 antibody binding and assayed for suppressor cells. This was done by the injection of separated spleen cells into the footpad of TNP-BSA-immunized mice, concurrent with the induction of footpad swelling (contact sensitivity) of the footpad elicited by an epicutaneous application of picryl chloride. The systemic distribution of antigen after the injection of antigen into the AC was demonstrated by the injection of fluorescein or 125I-labelled TNP-BSA into the AC. The results demonstrate that (i) splenic CD8+ T-suppressor cells produced in the immunized recipients of immunoregulatory thymocytes are derived from the CD45.2 recipient of the CD45.1+ thymocytes; (ii) the induction of recipient splenic suppressor T cells by the transferred immunoregulatory thymocytes requires that the recipient be immunized to the same antigen as that used to induce immunoregulatory thymocytes; (iii) antigen is introduced to the thymus after an injection of antigen into the AC; (iv) although the transfer of the suppression of DTH by regulatory thymocytes was not dependent on interleukin-4 (IL-4), CD4+ NK1.1- regulatory thymocytes from AC-injected donors enhanced the production of immunoglobulin G1 antibodies to TNP-BSA by an IL-4-dependent mechanism. These observations suggest that the adult thymus plays an active role in the induction and maintenance of anterior chamber-associated immune deviation as manifested by the generation of the suppression of cell-mediated immunity to exogenous antigen and the antigen-induced production of IgG1 antibodies.

The induction of splenic suppressor T cells through an immune-privileged site requires an intact sympathetic nervous system.

Antigen injection into the eye's anterior chamber (AC) induces the antigen-specific suppression of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) that is mediated by NKT cells and splenic CD8+ suppressor T cells. Because the AC, uveal tissues, the thymus and spleen required to induce anterior chamber-associated immune deviation (ACAID) have dense sympathetic innervations, we examined the effects of chemical sympathectomy of mice by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) on the induction of the suppression of contact sensitivity to trinitrophenol (TNP) induced by the injection of TNP-bovine serum albumin (BSA) into the anterior chamber. DTH measured as contact sensitivity to picrylchloride was not induced in mice that received 6-OHDA before immunization with TNP-BSA. Although spleen cells from 6-OHDA-treated TNP-BSA-immunized mice produced IFN-gamma when stimulated by TNP-BSA, the number of DTH-initiating hepatic NKT cells was reduced markedly in 6-OHDA-treated mice. Chemically denervated mice did not produce splenic suppressor T cells or thymic NKT cells that activate splenic suppressor T cells. We suggest that an intact sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is required to maintain cellular immunoregulation.