Dissecting the Role of VicK Phosphatase in Aggregation and Biofilm Formation of Streptococcus mutans.

VicRK (WalRK or YycFG) is a conserved 2-component regulatory system (TCS) that regulates cell division, cell wall biosynthesis, and homeostasis in low-GC Gram-positive bacteria. VicRK is also associated with biofilm formation of Streptococcus mutans on the tooth surface as it directly regulates the extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) synthesis. Of the 2 components, VicK possesses both autokinase and phosphatase activities, which regulate the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the regulator VicR in response to environmental cues. However, the dual mechanism of VicK as the autokinase/phosphatase in regulating S. mutans' responses is not well elucidated. Previously, it has been shown that the phosphatase activity depends on the PAS domain and residues in the DHp domain of VicK in S. mutans. Specifically, mutating proline at 222 in the PAS domain inhibits VicK phosphatase activity. We generated a VicKP222A mutant to determine the level of VicR-P in the cytoplasm by Phos-tag sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. We show that in VicKP222A phosphatase, attenuation increased phosphorylated VicR (VicR-P) that downregulated glucosyltransferases, gtfBC, thereby reducing the synthesis of water-insoluble polysaccharides (WIS-EPS) in the biofilm. In addition, VicKP222A presented as long-rod cells, reduced growth, and displayed asymmetrical division. A major adhesin of S. mutans, SpaP was downregulated in VicKP222A, making it unable to agglutinate in saliva. In summary, we have confirmed that VicK phosphatase activity is critical to maintain optimal phosphorylation status of VicR in S. mutans, which is important for cell growth, cell division, EPS synthesis, and bacterial agglutination in saliva. Hence, VicK phosphatase activity may represent a promising target to modulate S. mutans' pathogenicity.

Role of the Streptococcus mutans CRISPR-Cas systems in immunity and cell physiology.

CRISPR-Cas systems provide adaptive microbial immunity against invading viruses and plasmids. The cariogenic bacterium Streptococcus mutans UA159 has two CRISPR-Cas systems: CRISPR1 (type II-A) and CRISPR2 (type I-C) with several spacers from both CRISPR cassettes matching sequences of phage M102 or genomic sequences of other S. mutans. The deletion of the cas genes of CRISPR1 (ΔC1S), CRISPR2 (ΔC2E), or both CRISPR1+2 (ΔC1SC2E) or the removal of spacers 2 and 3 (ΔCR1SP13E) in S. mutans UA159 did not affect phage sensitivity when challenged with virulent phage M102. Using plasmid transformation experiments, we demonstrated that the CRISPR1-Cas system inhibits transformation of S. mutans by the plasmids matching the spacers 2 and 3. Functional analysis of the cas deletion mutants revealed that in addition to a role in plasmid targeting, both CRISPR systems also contribute to the regulation of bacterial physiology in S. mutans. Compared to wild-type cells, the ΔC1S strain displayed diminished growth under cell membrane and oxidative stress, enhanced growth under low pH, and had reduced survival under heat shock and DNA-damaging conditions, whereas the ΔC2E strain exhibited increased sensitivity to heat shock. Transcriptional analysis revealed that the two-component signal transduction system VicR/K differentially modulates expression of cas genes within CRISPR-Cas systems, suggesting that VicR/K might coordinate the expression of two CRISPR-Cas systems. Collectively, we provide in vivo evidence that the type II-A CRISPR-Cas system of S. mutans may be targeted to manipulate its stress response and to influence the host to control the uptake and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes.

Cariogenic bacteria degrade dental resin composites and adhesives.

A major reason for dental resin composite restoration replacement is related to secondary caries promoted by acid production from bacteria including Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans). We hypothesized that S. mutans has esterase activities that degrade dental resin composites and adhesives. Standardized specimens of resin composite (Z250), total-etch (Scotchbond Multipurpose, SB), and self-etch (Easybond, EB) adhesives were incubated with S. mutans UA159 or uninoculated culture medium (control) for up to 30 days. Quantification of the BisGMA-derived biodegradation by-product, bishydroxy-propoxy-phenyl-propane (BisHPPP), was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Surface analysis of the specimens was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). S. mutans was shown to have esterase activities in levels comparable with those found in human saliva. A trend of increasing BisHPPP release throughout the incubation period was observed for all materials and was more elevated in the presence of bacteria vs. control medium for EB and Z250, but not for SB (p < .05). SEM confirmed the increased degradation of all materials with S. mutans UA159 vs. control. S. mutans has esterase activities at levels that degrade resin composites and adhesives; degree of degradation was dependent on the material's chemical formulation. This finding suggests that the resin-dentin interface could be compromised by oral bacteria that contribute to the progression of secondary caries.

Regulation of bacteriocin production and cell death by the VicRK signaling system in Streptococcus mutans.

The VicRK two-component signaling system modulates biofilm formation, genetic competence, and stress tolerance in Streptococcus mutans. We show here that the VicRK modulates bacteriocin production and cell viability, in part by direct modulation of competence-stimulating peptide (CSP) production in S. mutans. Global transcriptome and real-time transcriptional analysis of the VicK-deficient mutant (SmuvicK) revealed significant modulation of several bacteriocin-related loci, including nlmAB, nlmC, and nlmD (P < 0.001), suggesting a role for the VicRK in producing mutacins IV, V, and VI. Bacteriocin overlay assays revealed an altered ability of the vic mutants to kill related species. Since a well-conserved VicR binding site (TGTWAH-N(5)-TGTWAH) was identified within the comC coding region, we confirmed VicR binding to this sequence using DNA footprinting. Overexpression of the vic operon caused growth-phase-dependent repression of comC, comDE, and comX. In the vic mutants, transcription of nlmC/cipB encoding mutacin V, previously linked to CSP-dependent cell lysis, as well as expression of its putative immunity factor encoded by immB, were significantly affected relative to the wild type (P < 0.05). In contrast to previous reports that proposed a hyper-resistant phenotype for the VicK mutant in cell viability, the release of extracellular genomic DNA was significantly enhanced in SmuvicK (P < 0.05), likely as a result of increased autolysis compared with the parent. The drastic influence of VicRK on cell viability was also demonstrated using vic mutant biofilms. Taken together, we have identified a novel regulatory link between the VicRK and ComDE systems to modulate bacteriocin production and cell viability of S. mutans.

Biodegradation of resin-dentin interfaces increases bacterial microleakage.

Bis-GMA-containing resin composites and adhesives undergo biodegradation by human-saliva-derived esterases, yielding Bis-hydroxy-propoxy-phenyl-propane (Bis-HPPP). The hypothesis of this study is that the exposure of dental restorations to saliva-like esterase activities accelerates marginal bacterial microleakage. Resin composites (Scotchbond, Z250, 3M) bonded to human dentin were incubated in either buffer or dual-esterase media (pseudocholinesterase/cholesterol-esterase; PCE+CE), with activity levels simulating those of human saliva, for up to 90 days. Incubation solutions were analyzed for Bis-HPPP by high-performance liquid chromatography. Post-incubation, specimens were suspended in a chemostat-based biofilm fermentor cultivating Streptococcus mutans NG8, a primary species associated with dental caries, for 7 days. Bacterial microleakage was assessed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Bis-HPPP production and depth and spatial volume of bacterial cell penetration within the interface increased with incubation time and were higher for 30- and 90-day PCE+CE vs. buffer-incubated groups, suggesting that biodegradation can contribute to the formation of recurrent decay.

Acid-stress-induced changes in enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 : H7 virulence.

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157 : H7 is naturally exposed to a wide variety of stresses including gastric acid shock, and yet little is known about how this stress influences virulence. This study investigated the impact of acid stress on several critical virulence properties including survival, host adhesion, Shiga toxin production, motility and induction of host-cell apoptosis. Several acid-stress protocols with relevance for gastric passage as well as external environmental exposure were included. Acute acid stress at pH 3 preceded by acid adaptation at pH 5 significantly enhanced the adhesion of surviving organisms to epithelial cells and bacterial induction of host-cell apoptosis. Motility was also significantly increased after acute acid stress. Interestingly, neither secreted nor periplasmic levels of Shiga toxin were affected by acid shock. Pretreatment of bacteria with erythromycin eliminated the acid-induced adhesion enhancement, suggesting that de novo protein synthesis was required for the enhanced adhesion of acid-shocked organisms. DNA microarray was used to analyse the transcriptome of an EHEC O157 : H7 strain exposed to three different acid-stress treatments. Expression profiles of acid-stressed EHEC revealed significant changes in virulence factors associated with adhesion, motility and type III secretion. These results document profound changes in the virulence properties of EHEC O157 : H7 after acid stress, provide a comprehensive genetic analysis to substantiate these changes and suggest strategies that this pathogen may use during gastric passage and colonization in the human gastrointestinal tract.

Simultaneous interferometric measurement of corrosive or demineralizing bacteria and their mineral interfaces.

Here, we report simultaneous surface profile measurements of several bacterial species involved in microbially influenced corrosion and their solid-surface interfaces by using vertical scanning interferometry. The capacity to nondestructively quantify microscale topographic changes beneath a single bacterium without its removal offers a unique opportunity to examine in vivo microbe-surface interactions.

In search of the microbe/mineral interface: quantitative analysis of bacteria on metal surfaces using vertical scanning interferometry.

To understand the development of biofilms on metal surfaces, analysis of initial bacterial attachment to surfaces is crucial. Here we present the results of a study, using Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 as a model organism, in which vertical scanning interferometry (VSI) was used to investigate the initial stages of cell attachment to glass, steel and aluminium surfaces. It was found that while VSI gave unambiguous results with opaque surfaces, when reflective surfaces were used, an artifact sometimes appeared, with the bacteria appearing as rod-shaped pits rather than as cells on the surface. When the bacteria were altered to increase opacity, this artifact disappeared, and upon further investigation, it was found that the observational artifact was the result of a conflict between light reflected from the bacteria and the light reflected from the bacteria-metal interface. These results suggest that not only can bacteria be measured on surfaces using VSI, but with some modifications to the analytical software, there may be a unique window for studying the bacterial/substrate interface that can be used for quantitative observations. Imaging and characterization of the bacteria-substrate interface in vivo (previously invisible) will provide new insights into the interactions that occur at this important juncture.

Antibiofilm activity of sodium bicarbonate, sodium metaperiodate and SDS combination against dental unit waterline-associated bacteria and yeast.

AIM: To determine the effect of sodium bicarbonate (SB), sodium metaperiodate (SMP) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) combination on biofilm formation and dispersal in dental unit waterline (DUWL)-associated bacteria and yeast. METHODS AND RESULTS: The in vitro effect of SB, SMP and SDS alone and in combination on biofilm formation and dispersal in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Actinomyces naeslundii, and Candida albicans was investigated using a 96-well microtitre plate biofilm assay. The combination showed a broad-spectrum inhibitory effect on growth as well as biofilm formation of both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, and yeast. In addition, the SB + SMP + SDS combination was significantly more effective in dispersing biofilm than the individual compounds. The combination dispersed more than 90% of P. aeruginosa biofilm whereas the commercial products, Oxygenal 6, Sterilex Ultra, and PeraSafe showed no biofilm dispersal activity. CONCLUSION: The composition comprising SB, SMP, and SDS was effective in inhibiting as well as dispersing biofilms in DUWL-associated bacteria and yeast. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study shows that a composition comprising environmentally friendly and biologically safe compounds such as SB, SMP, and SDS has a potential application in reducing DUWL-associated acquired infections in dental clinics.

Involvement of Streptococcus mutans regulator RR11 in oxidative stress response during biofilm growth and in the development of genetic competence.

AIMS: To identify the genes regulated by RR11, the regulator of the Streptococcus mutans HK/RR11 two-component system. METHODS AND RESULTS: The S. mutans RR11-encoding gene was inactivated, and the effects of gene disruption on the cell's ability to form biofilms under stresses and acquire extracellular DNA were tested. Biofilm was reduced in cells lacking RR11 following exposure to oxidative stress. RR11-defective cells showed approx. 20-fold reduction in transformation efficiency. Microarray used to decipher the RR11-regulated genes in biofilm showed that approx. 5% of the UA159 genome underwent a significant change in expression. RR11 was found to regulate 174 genes, including genes involved in competence, stress-response and cell division. CONCLUSIONS: Target genes controlled by RR11during biofilm growth have been identified by a comparison of transcriptional profiles between an RR11 defective mutant and the parental strain. The results demonstrated that RR11 is involved in the control of diverse cellular processes, including the formation of biofilm under oxidative stress and development of genetic competence. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The regulator of HK/RR11 system controls a large regulon and is an important regulator involved in stress response during S. mutans biofilm growth enabling the survival and persistence of its progeny in the microbial community.

Systemic inactivation and phenotypic characterization of two-component systems in expression of Streptococcus mutans virulence properties.

AIM: To assess potential function of each two-component signal transduction system in the expression of Streptococcus mutans virulence properties. METHODS AND RESULTS: For each two-component system (TCS), the histidine kinase-encoding gene was inactivated by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based deletion strategy and the effects of gene disruption on the cell's ability to form biofilms, become competent, and tolerate acid, osmotic, and oxidative stress conditions were tested. Our results demonstrated that none of the mutations were lethal for S. mutans. The TCS-2 (CiaRH) is involved in biofilm formation and tolerance to environmental stresses, the TCS-3 (ScnRK-like) participates in the survival of cells at acidic pH, and the TCS-9 affects the acid tolerance response and the process of streptococcal competence development. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirmed the physiological role of the TCS in S. mutans cellular function, in particular the SncRK-like TCS and TCS-9 as they may represent new regulatory systems than can be involved in S. mutans pathogenesis. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Multiple TCS govern important biological parameters of S. mutans enabling its survival and persistence in the biofilm community.

Modification of an effector strain for replacement therapy of dental caries to enable clinical safety trials.

AIMS: To construct a genetically modified strain of Streptococcus mutans for dental caries prevention. The strain has significantly reduced cariogenicity owing to a deletion of the entire open reading frame for lactate dehydrogenase, and has excellent colonization potential through the production of a natural antibiotic called mutacin 1140. For use in human clinical trials, additional mutations were introduced to enable rapid elimination of the strain in case of adverse side effects and to increase genetic stability. METHODS: Deletion mutations were introduced into the dal gene for d-alanine biosynthesis and the comE gene for genetic transformation. The resulting strain, A2JM, was tested for dependence on exogenous d-alanine and its ability to be eradicated from colonized rats. The strain was also tested for its ability to exchange DNA with another strain of S. mutans in in vitro and in vivo models. CONCLUSIONS: A2JM was completely dependent on exogenous d-alanine, but could colonize the oral cavity of rats in low numbers in the absence of dietary d-alanine. Results indicated that A2JM can scavenge d-alanine from other plaque bacteria. Lowering of the total oral bacterial load through daily application of chlorhexidine enabled virtually complete eradication of A2JM. The introduction of the comE gene did not significantly decrease the transformability of A2JM in in vitro or in vivo models. The addition of a deletion in the comE gene does, nonetheless, provide additional safety as it has a very low reversion frequency. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Based on the safety and efficacy profiles established in vitro and in animal models, A2JM appears suitable for safe use in human clinical trials.

Effect of composite resin biodegradation products on oral streptococcal growth.

Hydrolytic degradation by-products associated with the constitutive monomers 2,2-bis [4-(2-hydroxy-3-methacryloxypropoxy) phenyl] propane (bis-GMA), bisphenol A polyethylene glycol diether dimethacrylate (bis-EMA), and triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEDGMA) used in dental restorative composites include bis-hydroxy-propoxyphenyl propane (bis-HPPP), ethoxylated bisphenol A (E-bisPA), methacrylic acid (MA), and triethylene glycol (TEG). These products are generated from the interaction of human salivary esterases with the composites. Recent findings have indicated that TEGDMA has the ability to modulate oral bacteria but it is unclear which components of TEGDMA are related to the observed effects. The objective of the current study was to investigate the influence of TEGDMA derived degradation products MA and TEG on the growth of three strains of oral bacteria: S. mutans strains NG8 and JH1005, and S. salivarius AT2. Bacterial growth rates were measured at 37 degrees C, and pH values of 5.5 (representative of cariogenic state) or 7.0 at concentrations of 0-50mmol/l for MA (Sigma, US) and 0-100mmol/l for TEG (Sigma, US). It was found that at pH 5.5 TEG significantly stimulated the growth of both S. mutans strains ( p<0.05 ) in the concentration range of 0.5-10.0mmol/l and stimulated the growth of S. salivarius AT2 for the entire concentration range tested (p<0.05). TEG (above 50mmol/1) did not significantly affect the doubling times of S. salivarius at pH of 7.0 and it inhibited the growth of both S. mutans strains above 50mmol/l at the same pH value. At pH 5.5 MA inhibited the growth of all three strains with increasing concentration. At neutral pH, the growth of S. mutans NG8 strain was significantly reduced by MA ( p<0.05 ) above 10mmol/l. In summary, these results indicate that TEG and MA modulate the growth rate of important oral bacteria in a concentration and pH dependent manner.

Cell density modulates acid adaptation in Streptococcus mutans: implications for survival in biofilms.

Streptococcus mutans normally colonizes dental biofilms and is regularly exposed to continual cycles of acidic pH during ingestion of fermentable dietary carbohydrates. The ability of S. mutans to survive at low pH is an important virulence factor in the pathogenesis of dental caries. Despite a few studies of the acid adaptation mechanism of this organism, little work has focused on the acid tolerance of S. mutans growing in high-cell-density biofilms. It is unknown whether biofilm growth mode or high cell density affects acid adaptation by S. mutans. This study was initiated to examine the acid tolerance response (ATR) of S. mutans biofilm cells and to determine the effect of cell density on the induction of acid adaptation. S. mutans BM71 cells were first grown in broth cultures to examine acid adaptation associated with growth phase, cell density, carbon starvation, and induction by culture filtrates. The cells were also grown in a chemostat-based biofilm fermentor for biofilm formation. Adaptation of biofilm cells to low pH was established in the chemostat by the acid generated from excess glucose metabolism, followed by a pH 3.5 acid shock for 3 h. Both biofilm and planktonic cells were removed to assay percentages of survival. The results showed that S. mutans BM71 exhibited a log-phase ATR induced by low pH and a stationary-phase acid resistance induced by carbon starvation. Cell density was found to modulate acid adaptation in S. mutans log-phase cells, since pre-adapted cells at a higher cell density or from a dense biofilm displayed significantly higher resistance to the killing pH than the cells at a lower cell density. The log-phase ATR could also be induced by a neutralized culture filtrate collected from a low-pH culture, suggesting that the culture filtrate contained an extracellular induction component(s) involved in acid adaptation in S. mutans. Heat or proteinase treatment abolished the induction by the culture filtrate. The results also showed that mutants defective in the comC, -D, or -E genes, which encode a quorum sensing system essential for cell density-dependent induction of genetic competence, had a diminished log-phase ATR. Addition of synthetic competence stimulating peptide (CSP) to the comC mutant restored the ATR. This study demonstrated that cell density and biofilm growth mode modulated acid adaptation in S. mutans, suggesting that optimal development of acid adaptation in this organism involves both low pH induction and cell-cell communication.

uvrA is an acid-inducible gene involved in the adaptive response to low pH in Streptococcus mutans.

The pH-inducible acid tolerance response (ATR) is believed to play a major role in acid adaptation and virulence of Streptococcus mutans. To study this phenomenon in S. mutans JH1005, differential display PCR was used to identify and clone 13 cDNA products that had increased expression in response to pH 5.0 compared to that of pH 7.5-grown cells. One of these products, confirmed to be pH inducible by RNA dot blot and reverse transcription-PCR analyses, had 67% identity to a uvrA-UV repair excinuclease gene in Bacillus subtilis. Further sequence analysis of the uvrA homologue using the S. mutans genome database revealed that the complete gene was encoded in an open reading frame (ORF) of 2,829 bp (944 amino acids; 104.67 kDa). Immediately 3' of uvrA was an ORF encoding a putative aminopeptidase gene (pepP). uvrA knockouts were constructed in S. mutans strains JH1005, NG8, and UA159 using allelic-exchange mutagenesis, replacing the entire gene with an erythromycin resistance cassette. As with uvrA mutants in other bacteria, the S. mutans uvrA mutants were extremely sensitive to UV irradiation. The uvrA mutant of S. mutans JH1005 was also more sensitive than the wild type to growth at pH 5.0, showing a 15% reduction in growth rate and a 14% reduction in final resting culture density. Acid-adapted S. mutans JH1005 uvrA mutants were shown to be more resistant to UV irradiation than was the parent but were unable to survive exposure to a killing pH of 3.0. Moreover, agarose gel electrophoretic analysis of chromosomal DNA isolated from uvrA-deficient cells exposed to low pH demonstrated more DNA damage than that for the wild-type strain. Here we suggest that uvrA and the nucleotide excision repair pathway are involved in the repair of acid-induced DNA damage and are associated with successful adaptation of S. mutans to low pH.

Genetic competence and transformation in oral streptococci.

The oral streptococci are normally non-pathogenic residents of the human microflora. There is substantial evidence that these bacteria can, however, act as "genetic reservoirs" and transfer genetic information to transient bacteria as they make their way through the mouth, the principal entry point for a wide variety of bacteria. Examples that are of particular concern include the transfer of antibiotic resistance from oral streptococci to Streptococcus pneumoniae. The mechanisms that are used by oral streptococci to exchange genetic information are not well-understood, although several species are known to enter a physiological state of genetic competence. This state permits them to become capable of natural genetic transformation, facilitating the acquisition of foreign DNA from the external environment. The oral streptococci share many similarities with two closely related Gram-positive bacteria, S. pneumoniae and Bacillus subtilis. In these bacteria, the mechanisms of quorum-sensing, the development of competence, and DNA uptake and integration are well-characterized. Using this knowledge and the data available in genome databases allowed us to identify putative genes involved in these processes in the oral organism Streptococcus mutans. Models of competence development and genetic transformation in the oral streptococci and strategies to confirm these models are discussed. Future studies of competence in oral biofilms, the natural environment of oral streptococci, will be discussed.

Natural genetic transformation of Streptococcus mutans growing in biofilms.

Streptococcus mutans is a bacterium that has evolved to be dependent upon a biofilm "lifestyle" for survival and persistence in its natural ecosystem, dental plaque. We initiated this study to identify the genes involved in the development of genetic competence in S. mutans and to assay the natural genetic transformability of biofilm-grown cells. Using genomic analyses, we identified a quorum-sensing peptide pheromone signaling system similar to those previously found in other streptococci. The genetic locus of this system comprises three genes, comC, comD, and comE, that encode a precursor to the peptide competence factor, a histidine kinase, and a response regulator, respectively. We deduced the sequence of comC and its active pheromone product and chemically synthesized the corresponding 21-amino-acid competence-stimulating peptide (CSP). Addition of CSP to noncompetent cells facilitated increased transformation frequencies, with typically 1% of the total cell population transformed. To further confirm the roles of these genes in genetic competence, we inactivated them by insertion-duplication mutagenesis or allelic replacement followed by assays of transformation efficiency. We also demonstrated that biofilm-grown S. mutans cells were transformed at a rate 10- to 600-fold higher than planktonic S. mutans cells. Donor DNA included a suicide plasmid, S. mutans chromosomal DNA harboring a heterologous erythromycin resistance gene, and a replicative plasmid. The cells were optimally transformed during the formation of 8- to 16-h-old biofilms primarily consisting of microcolonies on solid surfaces. We also found that dead cells in the biofilms could act as donors of a chromosomally encoded antibiotic resistance determinant. This work demonstrated that a peptide pheromone system controls genetic competence in S. mutans and that the system functions optimally when the cells are living in actively growing biofilms.

Defects in D-alanyl-lipoteichoic acid synthesis in Streptococcus mutans results in acid sensitivity.

In the cariogenic organism, Streptococcus mutans, low pH induces an acid tolerance response (ATR). To identify acid-regulated proteins comprising the ATR, transposon mutagenesis with the thermosensitive plasmid pGh9:ISS1 was used to produce clones that were able to grow at neutral pH, but not in medium at pH 5.0. Sequence analysis of one mutant (IS1A) indicated that transposition had created a 6.3-kb deletion, one end of which was in dltB of the dlt operon encoding four proteins (DltA-DltD) involved in the synthesis of D-alanyl-lipoteichoic acid. Inactivation of the dltC gene, encoding the D-alanyl carrier protein (Dcp), resulted in the generation of the acid-sensitive mutant, BH97LC. Compared to the wild-type strain, LT11, the mutant exhibited a threefold-longer doubling time and a 33% lower growth yield. In addition, it was unable to initiate growth below pH 6.5 and unadapted cells were unable to survive a 3-h exposure in medium buffered at pH 3.5, while a pH of 3.0 was required to kill the wild type in the same time period. Also, induction of the ATR in BH97LC, as measured by the number of survivors at a pH killing unadapted cells, was 3 to 4 orders of magnitude lower than that exhibited by the wild type. While the LTA of both strains contained a similar average number of glycerolphosphate residues, permeabilized cells of BH97LC did not incorporate D-[(14)C]alanine into this amphiphile. This defect was correlated with the deficiency of Dcp. Chemical analysis of the LTA purified from the mutant confirmed the absence of D-alanine-esters. Electron micrographs showed that BH97LC is characterized by unequal polar caps and is devoid of a fibrous extracellular matrix present on the surface of the wild-type cells. Proton permeability assays revealed that the mutant was more permeable to protons than the wild type. This observation suggests a mechanism for the loss of the characteristic acid tolerance response in S. mutans.

Resistance of a novel root canal sealer to bacterial ingress in vitro.

A dentin-bonding root canal sealer (ZUT) has been developed, consisting of an experimental glass ionomer cement (KT-308) and an antimicrobial silver-containing zeolite (0.2% by weight). This in vitro study evaluated the ability of ZUT used with or without gutta-percha, to resist bacterial ingress of Enterococcus faecalis over a period of 90 days. Canals of 80 single-rooted teeth were prepared with apical patency and filled as follows (n = 10): KT-308 alone; KT-308 with a single gutta-percha cone (SCGP); ZUT alone; ZUT with SCGP; AH26 alone; AH26 with SCGP; positive control-no root canal filling; and negative control-no root canal filling, with the apices of this group sealed with C&B Metabond cement. Teeth were coated with nail polish except for the apical 2 mm, and each tooth was sealed in a 4-ml glass vial, with an 18-gauge needle inserted through the vial cover and bonded into the pulp chamber with C&B Metabond cement. After sterilization with 2.5 Mrad gamma-radiation, Brain Heart Infusion broth with phenol red was injected into each vial. An inoculum of E. faecalis was pipetted through the needle into the pulp chamber every 5 days, and the broth was monitored daily for color change and turbidity. When change occurred, the broth was cultured for growth of E. faecalis. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and the log-rank test revealed no significant differences among the three sealers used. The presence of gutta-percha, however, significantly improved resistance to bacterial ingress through obturated root canals (X, p < 0.05). Under the conditions of this study, the hypothesized advantage of ZUT (0.2% zeolite) was not demonstrated.

Tn917-lac mutagenesis of Streptococcus mutans to identify environmentally regulated genes.

Previously, we demonstrated successful Tn917 mutagenesis of the oral pathogen Streptococcus mutans using pTV1-OK (Km(r), repATs), a temperature conditional replicative delivery vector carrying a lactococcal pWVO1Ts backbone. In this report we describe the construction and utilization of pTV32-OK, a plasmid harboring Tn917-lac (em(r), beta-gal(+)) that was employed to isolate transcriptional fusions of the Escherichia coli lacZ reporter gene with streptococcal promoters in S. mutans strain NG8. Tn917-lac transposition occurred at a frequency of ca. 10(-6) with 20% of the resultant em(r) clones displaying varying levels of lacZ expression. Tn917-lac mutants that expressed beta-galactosidase activity under growth conditions of glucose limitation, acidic pH, 35 mM NaCl, and elevated (42 degrees C) temperature were isolated. Further characterization of one of the mutants with increased beta-gal activity under glucose limitation, strain AS42, revealed maximal activity in batch culture in stationary phase after glucose depletion. The beta-gal activity of AS42 also was found to be repressed 3-fold in medium containing 2% glucose relative to measured activity from cells suspended in the same medium containing no glucose. Further phenotypic analysis revealed that AS42 had a 30% lower growth yield than the parent strain NG8 when grown in pH 5 medium. Sequence analysis of the region harboring the transposon revealed that the lacZ fusion occurred near the 3'-end of a gene encoding a homolog of an ATP binding protein from a family of Gram-positive ABC transporters. These findings demonstrate that Tn917-lac mutagenesis can be used to identify environmentally regulated genes in S. mutans and possibly in other medically relevant streptococcal species.