PTBP1 regulates injury responses and sensory pathways in adult peripheral neurons.

Polypyrimidine tract binding protein 1 (PTBP1) is thought to be expressed only at embryonic stages in central neurons. Its down-regulation triggers neuronal differentiation in precursor and non-neuronal cells, an approach recently tested for generation of neurons de novo for amelioration of neurodegenerative disorders. Moreover, PTBP1 is replaced by its paralog PTBP2 in mature central neurons. Unexpectedly, we found that both proteins are coexpressed in adult sensory and motor neurons, with PTBP2 restricted mainly to the nucleus, while PTBP1 also shows axonal localization. Levels of axonal PTBP1 increased markedly after peripheral nerve injury, and it associates in axons with mRNAs involved in injury responses and nerve regeneration, including importin ß1 (KPNB1) and RHOA. Perturbation of PTBP1 affects local translation in axons, nociceptor neuron regeneration and both thermal and mechanical sensation. Thus, PTBP1 has functional roles in adult axons. Hence, caution is required before considering targeting of PTBP1 for therapeutic purposes.

Large-scale map of RNA binding protein interactomes across the mRNA life-cycle.

Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) interact with RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in diverse ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) during distinct life-cycle stages for their processing and maturation. While substantial attention has focused on understanding RNA regulation by assigning proteins, particularly RBPs, to specific RNA substrates, there has been considerably less exploration leveraging protein-protein interaction (PPI) methodologies to identify and study the role of proteins in mRNA life-cycle stages. To address this gap, we generated an RNA-aware RBP-centric PPI map across the mRNA life-cycle by immunopurification (IP-MS) of ~100 endogenous RBPs across the life-cycle in the presence or absence of RNase, augmented by size exclusion chromatography (SEC-MS). Aside from confirming 8,700 known and discovering 20,359 novel interactions between 1125 proteins, we determined that 73% of our IP interactions are regulated by the presence of RNA. Our PPI data enables us to link proteins to life-cycle stage functions, highlighting that nearly half of the proteins participate in at least two distinct stages. We show that one of the most highly interconnected proteins, ERH, engages in multiple RNA processes, including via interactions with nuclear speckles and the mRNA export machinery. We also demonstrate that the spliceosomal protein SNRNP200 participates in distinct stress granule-associated RNPs and occupies different RNA target regions in the cytoplasm during stress. Our comprehensive RBP-focused PPI network is a novel resource for identifying multi-stage RBPs and exploring RBP complexes in RNA maturation.

Dosage sensitivity to Pumilio1 variants in the mouse brain reflects distinct molecular mechanisms.

Different mutations in the RNA-binding protein Pumilio1 (PUM1) cause divergent phenotypes whose severity tracks with dosage: a mutation that reduces PUM1 levels by 25% causes late-onset ataxia, whereas haploinsufficiency causes developmental delay and seizures. Yet PUM1 targets are derepressed to equal degrees in both cases, and the more severe mutation does not hinder PUM1's RNA-binding ability. We therefore considered the possibility that the severe mutation might disrupt PUM1 interactions, and identified PUM1 interactors in the murine brain. We find that mild PUM1 loss derepresses PUM1-specific targets, but the severe mutation disrupts interactions with several RNA-binding proteins and the regulation of their targets. In patient-derived cell lines, restoring PUM1 levels restores these interactors and their targets to normal levels. Our results demonstrate that dosage sensitivity does not always signify a linear relationship with protein abundance but can involve distinct mechanisms. We propose that to understand the functions of RNA-binding proteins in a physiological context will require studying their interactions as well as their targets.

SEC-TMT facilitates quantitative differential analysis of protein interaction networks.

The majority of cellular proteins interact with at least one partner or assemble into molecular-complexes to exert their function. This network of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) and the composition of macromolecular machines differ between cell types and physiological conditions. Therefore, characterizing PPI networks and their dynamic changes is vital for discovering novel biological functions and underlying mechanisms of cellular processes. However, producing an in-depth, global snapshot of PPIs from a given specimen requires measuring tens to thousands of LC-MS/MS runs. Consequently, while recent works made seminal contributions by mapping PPIs at great depth, almost all focused on just 1-2 conditions, generating comprehensive but mostly static PPI networks. In this study we report the development of SEC-TMT, a method that enables identifying and measuring PPIs in a quantitative manner from only 4-8 LC-MS/MS runs per biological sample. This was accomplished by incorporating tandem mass tag (TMT) multiplexing with a size exclusion chromatography mass spectrometry (SEC-MS) work-flow. SEC-TMT reduces measurement time by an order of magnitude while maintaining resolution and coverage of thousands of cellular interactions, equivalent to the gold standard in the field. We show that SEC-TMT provides benefits for conducting differential analyses to measure changes in the PPI network between conditions. This development makes it feasible to study dynamic systems at scale and holds the potential to drive more rapid discoveries of PPI impact on cellular processes.

Bidirectional promoter activity from expression cassettes can drive off-target repression of neighboring gene translation.

Targeted selection-based genome-editing approaches have enabled many fundamental discoveries and are used routinely with high precision. We found, however, that replacement of DBP1 with a common selection cassette in budding yeast led to reduced expression and function for the adjacent gene, MRP51, despite all MRP51 coding and regulatory sequences remaining intact. Cassette-induced repression of MRP51 drove all mutant phenotypes detected in cells deleted for DBP1. This behavior resembled the 'neighboring gene effect' (NGE), a phenomenon of unknown mechanism whereby cassette insertion at one locus reduces the expression of a neighboring gene. Here, we leveraged strong off-target mutant phenotypes resulting from cassette replacement of DBP1 to provide mechanistic insight into the NGE. We found that the inherent bidirectionality of promoters, including those in expression cassettes, drives a divergent transcript that represses MRP51 through combined transcriptional interference and translational repression mediated by production of a long undecoded transcript isoform (LUTI). Divergent transcript production driving this off-target effect is general to yeast expression cassettes and occurs ubiquitously with insertion. Despite this, off-target effects are often naturally prevented by local sequence features, such as those that terminate divergent transcripts between the site of cassette insertion and the neighboring gene. Thus, cassette-induced off-target effects can be eliminated by the insertion of transcription terminator sequences into the cassette, flanking the promoter. Because the driving features of this off-target effect are broadly conserved, our study suggests it should be considered in the design and interpretation of experiments using integrated expression cassettes in other eukaryotic systems, including human cells.

A New Monoclonal Antibody Enables BAR Analysis of Subcellular Importin ß1 Interactomes.

Importin ß1 (KPNB1) is a nucleocytoplasmic transport factor with critical roles in both cytoplasmic and nucleocytoplasmic transport, hence there is keen interest in the characterization of its subcellular interactomes. We found limited efficiency of BioID in the detection of importin complex cargos and therefore generated a highly specific and sensitive anti-KPNB1 monoclonal antibody to enable biotinylation by antibody recognition analysis of importin ß1 interactomes. The monoclonal antibody recognizes an epitope comprising residues 301-320 of human KPBN1 and strikingly is highly specific for cytoplasmic KPNB1 in diverse applications, with little reaction with KPNB1 in the nucleus. Biotinylation by antibody recognition with this novel antibody revealed numerous new interactors of importin ß1, expanding the KPNB1 interactome to cytoplasmic and signaling complexes that highlight potential new functions for the importins complex beyond nucleocytoplasmic transport. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD032728.

The glycine arginine-rich domain of the RNA-binding protein nucleolin regulates its subcellular localization.

Nucleolin is a multifunctional RNA Binding Protein (RBP) with diverse subcellular localizations, including the nucleolus in all eukaryotic cells, the plasma membrane in tumor cells, and the axon in neurons. Here we show that the glycine arginine rich (GAR) domain of nucleolin drives subcellular localization via protein-protein interactions with a kinesin light chain. In addition, GAR sequences mediate plasma membrane interactions of nucleolin. Both these modalities are in addition to the already reported involvement of the GAR domain in liquid-liquid phase separation in the nucleolus. Nucleolin transport to axons requires the GAR domain, and heterozygous GAR deletion mice reveal reduced axonal localization of nucleolin cargo mRNAs and enhanced sensory neuron growth. Thus, the GAR domain governs axonal transport of a growth controlling RNA-RBP complex in neurons, and is a versatile localization determinant for different subcellular compartments. Localization determination by GAR domains may explain why GAR mutants in diverse RBPs are associated with neurodegenerative disease.

Locally translated mTOR controls axonal local translation in nerve injury.

How is protein synthesis initiated locally in neurons? We found that mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) was activated and then up-regulated in injured axons, owing to local translation of mTOR messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA was transported into axons by the cell size-regulating RNA-binding protein nucleolin. Furthermore, mTOR controlled local translation in injured axons. This included regulation of its own translation and that of retrograde injury signaling molecules such as importin ß1 and STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3). Deletion of the mTOR 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) in mice reduced mTOR in axons and decreased local translation after nerve injury. Both pharmacological inhibition of mTOR in axons and deletion of the mTOR 3'UTR decreased proprioceptive neuronal survival after nerve injury. Thus, mRNA localization enables spatiotemporal control of mTOR pathways regulating local translation and long-range intracellular signaling.

Nucleolin-Mediated RNA Localization Regulates Neuron Growth and Cycling Cell Size.

How can cells sense their own size to coordinate biosynthesis and metabolism with their growth needs? We recently proposed a motor-dependent bidirectional transport mechanism for axon length and cell size sensing, but the nature of the motor-transported size signals remained elusive. Here, we show that motor-dependent mRNA localization regulates neuronal growth and cycling cell size. We found that the RNA-binding protein nucleolin is associated with importin ß1 mRNA in axons. Perturbation of nucleolin association with kinesins reduces its levels in axons, with a concomitant reduction in axonal importin ß1 mRNA and protein levels. Strikingly, subcellular sequestration of nucleolin or importin ß1 enhances axonal growth and causes a subcellular shift in protein synthesis. Similar findings were obtained in fibroblasts. Thus, subcellular mRNA localization regulates size and growth in both neurons and cycling cells.

Isolation and analyses of axonal ribonucleoprotein complexes.

Cytoskeleton-dependent RNA transport and local translation in axons are gaining increased attention as key processes in the maintenance and functioning of neurons. Specific axonal transcripts have been found to play roles in many aspects of axonal physiology including axon guidance, axon survival, axon to soma communication, injury response and regeneration. This axonal transcriptome requires long-range transport that is achieved by motor proteins carrying transcripts as messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) complexes along microtubules. Other than transport, the mRNP complex plays a major role in the generation, maintenance, and regulation of the axonal transcriptome. Identification of axonal RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and analyses of the dynamics of their mRNPs are of high interest to the field. Here, we describe methods for the study of interactions between RNA and proteins in axons. First, we describe a protocol for identifying binding proteins for an RNA of interest by using RNA affinity chromatography. Subsequently, we discuss immunoprecipitation (IP) methods allowing the dissection of protein-RNA and protein-protein interactions in mRNPs under various physiological conditions.

Growth control mechanisms in neuronal regeneration.

Neurons grow during development and extend long axons to make contact with their targets with the help of an intrinsic program of axonal growth as well as a range of extrinsic cues and a permissive milieu. Injury events in adulthood induce some neuron types to revert to a regenerative state in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Neurons from the central nervous system (CNS), however, reveal a much lower capacity for regenerative growth. A number of intrinsic regeneration-promoting mechanisms have been described, including priming by calcium waves, epigenetic modifications, local mRNA translation, and dynein-driven retrograde transport of transcription factors (TFs) or signaling complexes that lead to TF activation and nuclear translocation. Differences in the availability or recruitment of these mechanisms may partially explain the limited response of CNS neurons to injury.

Low-level laser therapy ameliorates disease progression in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) has been used to treat inflammation, tissue healing, and repair processes. We recently reported that LLLT to the bone marrow (BM) led to proliferation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their homing in the ischemic heart suggesting its role in regenerative medicine. The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of LLLT to stimulate MSCs of autologous BM in order to affect neurological behavior and ß-amyloid burden in progressive stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) mouse model. MSCs from wild-type mice stimulated with LLLT showed to increase their ability to maturate towards a monocyte lineage and to increase phagocytosis activity towards soluble amyloid beta (Aß). Furthermore, weekly LLLT to BM of AD mice for 2 months, starting at 4 months of age (progressive stage of AD), improved cognitive capacity and spatial learning, as compared to sham-treated AD mice. Histology revealed a significant reduction in Aß brain burden. Our results suggest the use of LLLT as a therapeutic application in progressive stages of AD and imply its role in mediating MSC therapy in brain amyloidogenic diseases.

Subcellular knockout of importin ß1 perturbs axonal retrograde signaling.

Subcellular localization of mRNA enables compartmentalized regulation within large cells. Neurons are the longest known cells; however, so far, evidence is lacking for an essential role of endogenous mRNA localization in axons. Localized upregulation of Importin ß1 in lesioned axons coordinates a retrograde injury-signaling complex transported to the neuronal cell body. Here we show that a long 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) directs axonal localization of Importin ß1. Conditional targeting of this 3' UTR region in mice causes subcellular loss of Importin ß1 mRNA and protein in axons, without affecting cell body levels or nuclear functions in sensory neurons. Strikingly, axonal knockout of Importin ß1 attenuates cell body transcriptional responses to nerve injury and delays functional recovery in vivo. Thus, localized translation of Importin ß1 mRNA enables separation of cytoplasmic and nuclear transport functions of importins and is required for efficient retrograde signaling in injured axons.