Indicators to quantify biodiversity gains for compensation and mineland rehabilitation in the Eastern Amazon.

To connect the protection of natural resources to economic development, environmental rehabilitation is a promising way to repair and compensate for impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Here, we aimed to compare and select potential indicators for the success of different rehabilitating ecosystems to quantify gains in biodiversity and ecosystem services within the Impact Mitigation Hierarchy. We sampled nine environmental variables along rehabilitation chronosequences from rehabilitating (i) iron mining waste piles, (ii) sand quarries, and (iii) compensation areas in the Carajás National Forest. From that, we computed the rehabilitation status, i.e., the proportion of environmental enhancements compared to the overall rehabilitation trajectory, and statistically validated the indicators that best described the status. With a mean rehabilitation status for the oldest rehabilitation stages from waste piles, sand quarries, and compensation areas of 52, 71, and 74%, respectively, we confirmed that rehabilitation activities were able to generate considerable gains in biodiversity. In all the cases, the Shannon diversity, phylogenetic diversity and Leaf Area Index performed better than did the other indices, encouraging the increased use of these indices for upscale monitoring activities. Consistent indicators across distinct projects highlight the importance of maximizing tree diversity and canopy closure in rehabilitation projects to increase biodiversity gains within Impact Mitigation Hierarchy.

Enhancing iron biogeochemical cycling for canga ecosystem restoration: insights from microbial stimuli.

Introduction: The microbial-induced restoration of ferruginous crusts (canga), which partially cover iron deposits and host unique ecosystems, is a promising alternative for reducing the environmental impacts of the iron mining industry. Methods: To investigate the potential of microbial action to accelerate the reduction and oxidation of iron in substrates rich in hematite and goethite, four different microbial treatments (water only as a control - W; culture medium only - MO; medium + microbial consortium - MI; medium + microbial consortium + soluble iron - MIC) were periodically applied to induce iron dissolution and subsequent precipitation. Except for W, all the treatments resulted in the formation of biocemented blocks. Results: MO and MI treatments resulted in significant goethite dissolution, followed by precipitation of iron oxyhydroxides and an iron sulfate phase, due to iron oxidation, in addition to the preservation of microfossils. In the MIC treatment, biofilms were identified, but with few mineralogical changes in the iron-rich particles, indicating less iron cycling compared to the MO or MI treatment. Regarding microbial diversity, iron-reducing families, such as Enterobacteriaceae, were found in all microbially treated substrates. Discussion: However, the presence of Bacillaceae indicates the importance of fermentative bacteria in accelerating the dissolution of iron minerals. The acceleration of iron cycling was also promoted by microorganisms that couple nitrate reduction with Fe(II) oxidation. These findings demonstrate a sustainable and streamlined opportunity for restoration in mining areas.

Assessment of the reproduction of six collembolan species in tropical soils naturally rich in potentially toxic elements.

Laboratory ecotoxicological tests are important tools for the management of environmental changes derived from anthropogenic activities. Folsomia candida is usually the model species used in some procedures. However, this species may not be sufficiently representative of the sensitivity of the other collembolan species. This study aimed to evaluate (i) the effects of soils naturally rich in potentially toxic elements (PTE) and soil characteristics on the reproduction and survival of different collembolan species, (ii) whether the habitat function of these soils is compromised, and (iii) to what extent F. candida is representative of the other collembolan species. For this, reproduction tests with six collembolan species were conducted in 14 different samples of soils. In general, collembolan reproduction was not completely inhibited in none of the natural tested soils. Even soils with high pollution load index values did not negatively affect collembolan reproduction for most of the species. In contrast, the lowest collembolan reproduction rates were found in a visually dense soil (lowest volume/weight ratio), highlighting that soil attributes other than total PTE concentration also interfere in the reproduction of collembolans. Our results support the idea that the F. candida species might not be representative of other collembolan species and that laboratory tests to assess soil contaminations should be conducted using diverse collembolan species.

Clean and accurate soil quality monitoring in mining areas under environmental rehabilitation in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon.

Soil quality monitoring in mining rehabilitation areas is a crucial step to validate the effectiveness of the adopted recovery strategy, especially in critical areas for environmental conservation, such as the Brazilian Amazon. The use of portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometry allows a rapid quantification of several soil chemical elements, with low cost and without residue generation, being an alternative for clean and accurate environmental monitoring. Thus, this work aimed to assess soil quality in mining areas with different stages of environmental rehabilitation based on predictions of soil fertility properties through pXRF along with four machine learning algorithms (projection pursuit regression, PPR; support vector machine, SVM; cubist regression, CR; and random forest, RF) in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon. Sandstone and iron mines in different chronological stages of rehabilitation (initial, intermediate, and advanced) were evaluated, in addition to non-rehabilitated and native forest areas. A total of 81 soil samples (26 from sandstone mine and 55 from iron mine) were analyzed by both traditional wet-chemistry methods and pXRF. The available/exchangeable contents of K, Ca, B, Fe, and Al, in addition to H+Al, cation exchange capacity at pH = 7, Al saturation, soil organic matter, pH, sum of bases, base saturation, clay, and sand were accurately predicted (R2 > 0.70) using pXRF data, with emphasis on the prediction of Fe (R2 = 0.93), clay content (R2 = 0.81), H+Al (R2 = 0.81), and K+ (R2 = 0.85). The best predictive models were developed by RF and CR (86%) and when considering pXRF data + mining area + stage of rehabilitation (73%). The results highlight the potential of pXRF to accurately assess soil properties in environmental rehabilitation areas in the Amazon region (yet scarcely evaluated under this approach), promoting a more agile and cheaper preliminary diagnosis compared to traditional methods.

Exogenous Nitric Oxide Alleviates Water Deficit and Increases the Seed Production of an Endemic Amazonian Canga Grass.

Open pit mining can cause loss in different ecosystems, including damage to habitats of rare and endemic species. Understanding the biology of these species is fundamental for their conservation, and to assist in decision-making. Sporobolus multiramosus is an annual grass endemic to the Amazon canga ecosystems, which comprise rocky outcrop vegetation covering one of the world's largest iron ore reserves. Here, we evaluated whether nitric oxide aids S. multiramosus in coping with water shortages and examined the physiological processes behind these adaptations. nitric oxide application improved the water status, photosynthetic efficiency, biomass production, and seed production and germination of S. multiramosus under water deficit conditions. These enhancements were accompanied by adjustments in leaf and root anatomy, including changes in stomata density and size and root endodermis thickness and vascular cylinder diameter. Proteomic analysis revealed that nitric oxide promoted the activation of several proteins involved in the response to environmental stress and flower and fruit development. Overall, the results suggest that exogenous nitric oxide has the potential to enhance the growth and productivity of S. multiramosus. Enhancements in seed productivity have significant implications for conservation initiatives and can be applied to seed production areas, particularly for the restoration of native ecosystems.

Acquiring Iron-Reducing Enrichment Cultures: Environments, Methods and Quality Assessments.

Lateritic duricrusts cover iron ore deposits and form spatially restricted, unique canga ecosystems endangered by mining. Iron cycling, i.e., the dissolution and subsequent precipitation of iron, is able to restitute canga duricrusts, generating new habitats for endangered biota in post-mining landscapes. As iron-reducing bacteria can accelerate this iron cycling, we aim to retrieve microbial enrichment cultures suitable to mediate the large-scale restoration of cangas. For that, we collected water and sediment samples from the Carajás National Forest and cultivated the iron-reducing microorganisms therein using a specific medium. We measured the potential to reduce iron using ferrozine assays, growth rate and metabolic activity. Six out of seven enrichment cultures effectively reduced iron, showing that different environments harbor iron-reducing bacteria. The most promising enrichment cultures were obtained from environments with repeated flooding and drying cycles, i.e., periodically inundated grasslands and a plateau of an iron mining waste pile characterized by frequent soaking. Selected enrichment cultures contained iron-reducing and fermenting bacteria, such as Serratia and Enterobacter. We found higher iron-reducing potential in enrichment cultures with a higher cell density and microorganism diversity. The obtained enrichment cultures should be tested for canga restoration to generate benefits for biodiversity and contribute to more sustainable iron mining in the region.

Evolutionary history of marginal habitats regulates the diversity of tree communities in the Atlantic Forest.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot is a complex mosaic of habitat types. However, the diversity of the rain forest at the core of this complex has received far more attention than that of its marginal habitats, such as cloud forest, semi-deciduous forest or restinga. Here, we investigate broad-scale angiosperm tree diversity patterns along elevation gradients in the south-east Atlantic Forest and test if the diversity of marginal habitats is shaped from the neighbouring rain forest, as commonly thought. METHODS: We calculated phylogenetic indices that capture basal [mean pairwise phylogenetic distance (MPD)] and terminal [mean nearest taxon distance (MNTD)] phylogenetic variation, phylogenetic endemism (PE) and taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity (BD and PBD) for 2074 angiosperm tree species distributed in 108 circular sites of 10 km diameter across four habitat types i.e. rain forest, cloud forest, semi-deciduous forest and coastal vegetation known as restinga. We then related these metrics to elevation and environmental variables. KEY RESULTS: Communities in wetter and colder forests show basal phylogenetic overdispersion and short phylogenetic distances towards the tips, respectively. In contrast, communities associated with water deficit and salinity show basal phylogenetic clustering and no phylogenetic structure toward the tips. Unexpectedly, rain forest shows low PE given its species richness, whereas cloud and semi-deciduous forests show unusually high PE. The BD and PBD between most habitat types are driven by the turnover of species and lineages, except for restinga. CONCLUSIONS: Our results contradict the idea that all marginal habitat types of the Atlantic Forest are sub-sets of the rain forest. We show that marginal habitat types have different evolutionary histories and may act as 'equilibrium zones for biodiversity' in the Atlantic Forest, generating new species or conserving others. Overall, our results add evolutionary insights that reinforce the urgency of encompassing all habitat types in the Atlantic Forest concept.

Low fertilization optimizes the water use efficiency of an Amazonian canga grass for mineland rehabilitation / Baixa fertilização otimiza a eficiência do uso da água de uma gramínea nativa da canga amazônica para reabilitação de minas

The peculiar characteristics of mining waste substrates represent a significant challenge for environmental rehabilitation. Here, we evaluated the revegetation potential of Paspalum cinerascens on substrates from mining areas of Serra dos Carajás, a region harboring a large mine complex in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Paspalum cinerascens is a native grass widely distributed in the canga ecosystem, a vegetation type covering iron ore reserves. Seeds of P. cinerascens harvested in canga were germinated in sterilized quartzite sand and the seedlings grown in controlled conditions for 90 days. The seedlings were then cultivated in canga topsoil (control, without fertilization) and mining waste substrate with half and complete fertilization currently applied at the beginning of mineland rehabilitation in Serra dos Carajás. Regardless of fertilization, plants grown in the mining waste substrate did not differ in carbon assimilation, tillering rate and root biomass, despite higher leaf nutrient content and lower root: shoot ratio when compared to plants in canga topsoil. Compared to the control, complete fertilization led to significantly taller plants, higher shoot biomass and reduced water use efficiency. Half fertilization led to higher phosphorus and water use efficiency and stomatal density. Our results confirmed that P. cinerascens has adaptive traits to grow and thrive in the harsh environmental conditions of post iron ore mining, and can be used in rehabilitation processes. Moreover, half fertilization led to plants with optimized water loss in exchange for carbon without significant costs to plant growth, an interesting trait for rehabilitation in areas experiencing water restrictions.(AU)

As características peculiares dos substratos de remanescentes da mineração (estéril de mina) representam um desafio para a recuperação ambiental. Neste estudo avaliamos o potencial de uso de Paspalum cinerascens para revegetação de estéril de mina na Serra dos Carajás, Pará (Brasil). Paspalum cinerascens é uma gramínea nativa amplamente distribuída nas cangas, vegetação típica dos campos rupestres que cobrem reservas de minério de ferro. As plantas de P. cinerascens foram cultivadas em topsoil de canga (controle) e em estéril de mina com meio e completo regime de fertilização atualmente empregado para revegetação das áreas mineradas na Serra dos Carajás. Foram utilizadas sementes coletadas nas cangas e as plantas foram cultivadas em condições controladas por 90 dias. Independentemente da fertilização, plantas cultivadas em estéril de mina não apresentaram diferenças significativas na assimilação de carbono, perfilhamento ou biomassa radicular, apesar de valores mais elevados de nutrientes foliares e menor razão raiz: parte aérea quando comparadas às plantas em topsoil de canga. A fertilização completa resultou em plantas mais altas, maior biomassa aérea e menor eficiência no uso da água. Metade da fertilização aumentou a densidade estomática, a eficiência de uso da água e de fósforo. Esses resultados confirmaram que P. cinerascens possui características adaptativas para crescer e prosperar em condições ambientais adversas remanescentes da mineração, sendo indicada para uso em processos de recuperação de áreas degradadas na Serra dos Carajás. Além disso, o uso de metade do regime de fertilização otimiza o uso da água pelas plantas sem perdas significativas de crescimento, uma característica desejável para recuperação de áreas com restrições hídricas.(AU)

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Mimosa acutistipula Success in Amazonian Rehabilitating Minelands.

Mimosa acutistipula is endemic to Brazil and grows in ferruginous outcrops (canga) in Serra dos Carajás, eastern Amazon, where one of the largest iron ore deposits in the world is located. Plants that develop in these ecosystems are subject to severe environmental conditions and must have adaptive mechanisms to grow and thrive in cangas. Mimosa acutistipula is a native species used to restore biodiversity in post-mining areas in canga. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the adaptation of M. acutistipula in canga is essential to deduce the ability of native species to adapt to possible stressors in rehabilitating minelands over time. In this study, the root proteomic profiles of M. acutistipula grown in a native canga ecosystem and rehabilitating minelands were compared to identify essential proteins involved in the adaptation of this species in its native environment and that should enable its establishment in rehabilitating minelands. The results showed differentially abundant proteins, where 436 proteins with significant values (p < 0.05) and fold change ≥ 2 were more abundant in canga and 145 in roots from the rehabilitating minelands. Among them, a representative amount and diversity of proteins were related to responses to water deficit, heat, and responses to metal ions. Other identified proteins are involved in biocontrol activity against phytopathogens and symbiosis. This research provides insights into proteins involved in M. acutistipula responses to environmental stimuli, suggesting critical mechanisms to support the establishment of native canga plants in rehabilitating minelands over time.

Cross-species transcriptomes reveal species-specific and shared molecular adaptations for plants development on iron-rich rocky outcrops soils.

BACKGROUND: Canga is the Brazilian term for the savanna-like vegetation harboring several endemic species on iron-rich rocky outcrops, usually considered for mining activities. Parkia platycephala Benth. and Stryphnodendron pulcherrimum (Willd.) Hochr. naturally occur in the cangas of Serra dos Carajás (eastern Amazonia, Brazil) and the surrounding forest, indicating high phenotypic plasticity. The morphological and physiological mechanisms of the plants' establishment in the canga environment are well studied, but the molecular adaptative responses are still unknown. To understand these adaptative responses, we aimed to identify molecular mechanisms that allow the establishment of these plants in the canga environment. RESULTS: Plants were grown in canga and forest substrates collected in the Carajás Mineral Province. RNA was extracted from pooled leaf tissue, and RNA-seq paired-end reads were assembled into representative transcriptomes for P. platycephala and S. pulcherrimum containing 31,728 and 31,311 primary transcripts, respectively. We identified both species-specific and core molecular responses in plants grown in the canga substrate using differential expression analyses. In the species-specific analysis, we identified 1,112 and 838 differentially expressed genes for P. platycephala and S. pulcherrimum, respectively. Enrichment analyses showed that unique biological processes and metabolic pathways were affected for each species. Comparative differential expression analysis was based on shared single-copy orthologs. The overall pattern of ortholog expression was species-specific. Even so, we identified almost 300 altered genes between plants in canga and forest substrates with conserved responses in the two species. The genes were functionally associated with the response to light stimulus and the circadian rhythm pathway. CONCLUSIONS: Plants possess species-specific adaptative responses to cope with the substrates. Our results also suggest that plants adapted to both canga and forest environments can adjust the circadian rhythm in a substrate-dependent manner. The circadian clock gene modulation might be a central mechanism regulating the plants' development in the canga substrate in the studied legume species. The mechanism may be shared as a common mechanism to abiotic stress compensation in other native species.

Proteomic Profiling and Rhizosphere-Associated Microbial Communities Reveal Adaptive Mechanisms of Dioclea apurensis Kunth in Eastern Amazon's Rehabilitating Minelands.

Dioclea apurensis Kunth is native to ferruginous rocky outcrops (known as canga) in the eastern Amazon. Native cangas are considered hotspots of biological diversity and have one of the largest iron ore deposits in the world. There, D. apurensis can grow in post-mining areas where molecular mechanisms and rhizospheric interactions with soil microorganisms are expected to contribute to their establishment in rehabilitating minelands (RM). In this study, we compare the root proteomic profile and rhizosphere-associated bacterial and fungal communities of D. apurensis growing in canga and RM to characterize the main mechanisms that allow the growth and establishment in post-mining areas. The results showed that proteins involved in response to oxidative stress, drought, excess of iron, and phosphorus deficiency showed higher levels in canga and, therefore, helped explain its high establishment rates in RM. Rhizospheric selectivity of microorganisms was more evident in canga. The microbial community structure was mostly different between the two habitats, denoting that despite having its preferences, D. apurensis can associate with beneficial soil microorganisms without specificity. Therefore, its good performance in RM can also be improved or attributed to its ability to cope with beneficial soil-borne microorganisms. Native plants with such adaptations must be used to enhance the rehabilitation process.

Changes in soil properties during iron mining and in rehabilitating minelands in the Eastern Amazon.

Open-cast iron mining causes drastic disturbances in soil properties. Recovery of soil chemical and physical properties is essential for successful revegetation and landscape rehabilitation. To identify changes in soil properties during the mining and revegetation process, soil samples were collected from undisturbed sites represented by forest and ferriferous savannas stocking above iron outcrops, called "cangas," in open-pit benches, and in rehabilitation chronosequences of iron waste piles in the Carajás Mineral Province (CMP), Eastern Amazon, Brazil. The samples were analyzed for chemical and physical properties. Our results showed that iron mining operations resulted in significant alteration of the chemical soil properties when forest and canga vegetation are suppressed to form open-pit benches or waste piles in the CMP. Mining substrates showed lower contents of soil organic matter (SOM) and nutrients than undisturbed areas of forests and cangas. In order to achieve the success of revegetation, nutrients have been added prior to plant establishment. We have demonstrated how soil fertility changes along with mineland rehabilitation, and the variation among chronosequence was attributable mainly due to contents of SOM, K, and B in the soil. The slight improvement of SOM found in rehabilitated waste piles reinforces the notion that recovery of soil quality can be a slow process in iron minelands in the CMP.

Copper mining in the eastern Amazon: an environmental perspective on potentially toxic elements.

Mining activity is of great economic and social importance; however, volumes of metallic ore tailings rich in potentially toxic elements (PTEs) may be produced. In this context, managing this environmental liability and assessing soil quality in areas close to mining activities are fundamental. This study aimed to compare the concentrations of PTEs-arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn)-as well as the fertility and texture of Cu tailings and soils of native, urban and pasture areas surrounding a Cu mining complex in the eastern Amazon. The levels of PTEs were compared with soil prevention values, soil quality reference values, global average soil concentrations and average upper continental crust concentrations. The contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (Cdeg), potential ecological risk index (RI), geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and pollution load index (PLI) were calculated. The levels of Co, Cu and Ni in the tailings area exceeded the prevention values, soil quality reference values and average upper continental crust concentrations; however, the tailings area was considered unpolluted according to PLI and RI and presented a low potential ecological risk. The high concentrations of PTEs are associated with the geological properties of the area, and the presence of PTEs-rich minerals supports these results. For the urban and pasture areas, none of the 11 PTEs analyzed exceeded the prevention values established by the Brazilian National Environment Council.

Nutrient requirements of paricá (Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum): optimizing seedling quality for reforestation programs / Exigências nutricionais do paricá (Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum): otimizando a qualidade de mudas para programas de reflorestamento

Amazonian reforestation programs emphasize the use of species native to the region. However, reforestation using native species requires the production of high-quality seedlings. The present study aimed to evaluate the development and quality of seedlings of paricá (Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum), a species native to the Amazon with high potential for reforestation activities. We carried out a greenhouse experiment in which seedlings were subjected to treatments with varying presence of major and micronutrients in the substrate, and evaluated the effect on functional attributes (plant height, stem diameter, specific leaf area, shoot and root dry matter) and physiological response (chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid concentrations). Our results showed that nutrient omission significantly affects paricá seedling growth. Considering the assessed biometric and physiological variables, the highest nutritional requirements of seedlings were for N, P, K, micronutrients, Mg and S, while seedling quality was maintained in the absence of Ca. Overall, this species shows efficient use of available nutrients and potential for growth in soils with low concentrations of bases. Therefore, for the production of high-quality paricá seedlings, major and micronutrients should be added and lime is essential, but the good seedling performance under Ca omission suggested that this element does not need to be added to the soil.(AU)

Os programas de reflorestamento da Amazônia enfatizam o uso de espécies nativas da região. No entanto, o reflorestamento com espécies nativas requer a produção de mudas de alta qualidade. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o desenvolvimento e a qualidade de mudas de paricá (Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum), espécie nativa da Amazônia com alto potencial para atividades de reflorestamento. Realizamos um experimento em casa de vegetação no qual mudas foram submetidas a tratamentos com presença variável de macro e micronutrientes no substrato, e avaliamos o efeito sobre os atributos funcionais (altura da planta, diâmetro do caule, área foliar específica, matéria seca da parte aérea e raiz) e resposta fisiológica (concentração de clorofila a, b e carotenóides). Nossos resultados mostraram que a omissão de nutrientes afeta significativamente o crescimento do paricá. Considerando as variáveis biométricas e fisiológicas avaliadas, as maiores exigências nutricionais das plântulas foram para N, P, K, micronutrientes, Mg e S, enquanto a qualidade das plântulas foi mantida na ausência de Ca. De modo geral, esta espécie apresenta uso eficiente dos nutrientes disponíveis e potencial de crescimento em solos com baixas concentrações de bases. Portanto, para a produção de mudas de paricá de alta qualidade, devem ser adicionados macro e micronutrientes e o calcário é essencial, mas o bom desempenho das mudas sob omissão de Ca sugere que este elemento não precisa ser adicionado ao solo.(AU)

Native Amazonian Canga Grasses Show Distinct Nitrogen Growth Responses in Iron Mining Substrates.

Native species may have adaptive traits that are advantageous for overcoming the adverse environmental conditions faced during the early stages of mine land rehabilitation. Here, we examined the nitrogen (N) growth responses of two native perennial grasses (Axonopus longispicus and Paspalum cinerascens) from canga in nutrient-poor iron mining substrates. We carried out vegetative propagation and recovered substantial healthy tillers from field-collected tussocks of both species. These tillers were cultivated in mining substrates at increasing N levels. The tillering rates of both species increased with the N application. Nonetheless, only in P. cinerascens did the N application result in significant biomass increase. Such growth gain was a result of changes in leaf pigment, stomatal morphology, gas exchanges, and nutrients absorption that occurred mainly under the low N additions. Reaching optimum growth at 80 mg N dm-3, these plants showed no differences from those in the field. Our study demonstrates that an input of N as fertilizer can differentially improve the growth of native grasses and that P. cinerascens plants are able to deposit high quantities of carbon and protect soil over the seasons, thus, making them promising candidates for restoring nutrient cycling, accelerating the return of other species and ecosystem services.

Natural regeneration triggers compositional and functional shifts in soil seed banks.

Secondary forests emerging during traditional shifting cultivation practices are increasingly recognized for their fulfillment of ecosystem services and mitigation potential of climate change and biodiversity losses. The soil seed bank as a recruit reservoir is a limiting factor for natural forest regeneration of such secondary forests and is decisive for the formation and restitution of the post-disturbance community. The aim of this study was to compare the composition of the soil seed bank along a natural regeneration chronosequence from the Caxiuanã National Forest, eastern Amazon, including old-growth reference sites. We sampled standing vegetation, soil properties and soil seed banks and compared the density and species richness of different life forms among different regeneration stages. Using nonmetric, multiple scaling, we compared the composition of the soil seed bank among different regeneration stages and with standing vegetation composition. Furthermore, we outlined the influence of stand age, vegetation structure and soil properties on the density, richness and functional characterization of the soil seed bank using mixed effect models. The soil seed bank was dominated by herb seeds in all regeneration stages, and the density and richness of tree seeds increased with regeneration time and recovery of vegetation structure. Seed bank composition changed gradually with regeneration advance and differed from standing vegetation, containing a high amount of allochthonous seeds, especially in older stands. This observation highlights the importance of dispersal and habitat connectivity for the natural regeneration of these secondary forests. Shifts in soil seed bank composition towards slow-growing, animal-dispersed, non-pioneer species with larger, recalcitrant seeds in older regeneration stands indicate changes in vegetation composition along succession. Thus, our data indicate the importance of connectivity for forest regeneration and long fallow periods (> 40 years) to increase the performance of ecosystem services, resilience and stability of secondary forests arising during shifting cultivation practices.

Combining genotype, phenotype, and environmental data to delineate site-adjusted provenance strategies for ecological restoration.

Despite the importance of climate-adjusted provenancing to mitigate the effects of environmental change, climatic considerations alone are insufficient when restoring highly degraded sites. Here we propose a comprehensive landscape genomic approach to assist the restoration of moderately disturbed and highly degraded sites. To illustrate it we employ genomic data sets comprising thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms from two plant species suitable for the restoration of iron-rich Amazonian Savannas. We first use a subset of neutral loci to assess genetic structure and determine the genetic neighbourhood size. We then identify genotype-phenotype-environment associations, map adaptive genetic variation, and predict adaptive genotypes for restoration sites. Whereas local provenances were found optimal to restore a moderately disturbed site, a mixture of genotypes seemed the most promising strategy to recover a highly degraded mining site. We discuss how our results can help define site-adjusted provenancing strategies, and argue that our methods can be more broadly applied to assist other restoration initiatives.

Assessment of fire hazard weather indices in theeastern Amazon: a case study for different land uses / Avaliação dos índices climáticos de perigo de incêndio na Amazôniaoriental: um estudo de caso para diferentes usos do solo

The fire frequency in the Amazon increased rapidly after the 1990s due to deforestation and forest degradation, and it is expected to increase in response to climate change. We analyzed the fire occurrence and assessed seven fire hazard indices in the municipality of Canaã dos Carajás, in the eastern Amazon, for different land use and land cover (LULC) types. We used data from three weather stations located at different heights to compare the performance of the indices using skill scores and success percentages for each LULC. Overall most hotspots occurred in deforested areas and native forests, which were the main LULC types, while few were observed in rupestrian fields, urban areas, and mining areas. However, forests presented the lowest number of hotspots per unit area, especially inside protected areas, and all hotspots in forest areas were observed after a severe drought in 2015. The performance of the fire indices varied as a function of the LULC class and the weather station considered, which indicates the importance of choosing the most appropriate location of the station according to the purpose of the monitoring. The Keetch-Byram Drought Index showed the best performance for predicting fire occurrence for all LULC classes, and forests and deforested areas individually. Despite its simplicity, the Angstrom index stood out due to its good performance in the prediction of days with more than six hotspots.

A frequência dos incêndios na Amazônia aumentou rapidamente após a década de 1990 devido ao desmatamento e degradação florestal, e espera-se que continue aumentando em resposta às mudanças climáticas. Analisamos a ocorrência de incêndios e avaliamos sete índices de perigo de incêndio no município de Canaã dos Carajás, na Amazônia oriental, para diferentes tipos de uso e cobertura do solo. Usamos dados de três estações meteorológicas situadas em diferentes altitudes para comparar o desempenho dos índices usando skill scores e porcentagens de sucesso para cada uso do solo. Em geral, a maior parte dos focos de calor ocorreu em áreas desmatadas e florestas nativas, que têm as maiores áreas de cobertura no município, enquanto poucos focos foram observados nas áreas de campo rupestre, urbanas e de mineração. No entanto, as florestas apresentaram o menor número de focos de calor por unidade de área, especialmente dentro de áreas protegidas, e todos os focos em floresta foram observados após uma seca severa em 2015. O desempenho dos índices de incêndio variou em função do uso do solo e da estação meteorológica utilizada, mostrando a importância da escolha da localização apropriada da estação, conforme o objetivo do monitoramento. O Índice de Seca Keetch-Byram apresentou o melhor desempenho para predizer a ocorrência de incêndios considerando todos os usos do solo, e para as áreas de floresta e desmatadas separadamente. Apesar de sua simplicidade, o índice de Angstrom se destacou por seu desempenho na predição de dias com mais de seis focos de calor detectados.

Assessment of fire hazard weather indices in the eastern Amazon: a case study for different land uses

RESUMO A frequência dos incêndios na Amazônia aumentou rapidamente após a década de 1990 devido ao desmatamento e degradação florestal, e espera-se que continue aumentando em resposta às mudanças climáticas. Analisamos a ocorrência de incêndios e avaliamos sete índices de perigo de incêndio no município de Canaã dos Carajás, na Amazônia oriental, para diferentes tipos de uso e cobertura do solo. Usamos dados de três estações meteorológicas situadas em diferentes altitudes para comparar o desempenho dos índices usando skill scores e porcentagens de sucesso para cada uso do solo. Em geral, a maior parte dos focos de calor ocorreu em áreas desmatadas e florestas nativas, que têm as maiores áreas de cobertura no município, enquanto poucos focos foram observados nas áreas de campo rupestre, urbanas e de mineração. No entanto, as florestas apresentaram o menor número de focos de calor por unidade de área, especialmente dentro de áreas protegidas, e todos os focos em floresta foram observados após uma seca severa em 2015. O desempenho dos índices de incêndio variou em função do uso do solo e da estação meteorológica utilizada, mostrando a importância da escolha da localização apropriada da estação, conforme o objetivo do monitoramento. O Índice de Seca Keetch-Byram apresentou o melhor desempenho para predizer a ocorrência de incêndios considerando todos os usos do solo, e para as áreas de floresta e desmatadas separadamente. Apesar de sua simplicidade, o índice de Angstrom se destacou por seu desempenho na predição de dias com mais de seis focos de calor detectados.

ABSTRACT The fire frequency in the Amazon increased rapidly after the 1990s due to deforestation and forest degradation, and it is expected to increase in response to climate change. We analyzed the fire occurrence and assessed seven fire hazard indices in the municipality of Canaã dos Carajás, in the eastern Amazon, for different land use and land cover (LULC) types. We used data from three weather stations located at different heights to compare the performance of the indices using skill scores and success percentages for each LULC. Overall most hotspots occurred in deforested areas and native forests, which were the main LULC types, while few were observed in rupestrian fields, urban areas, and mining areas. However, forests presented the lowest number of hotspots per unit area, especially inside protected areas, and all hotspots in forest areas were observed after a severe drought in 2015. The performance of the fire indices varied as a function of the LULC class and the weather station considered, which indicates the importance of choosing the most appropriate location of the station according to the purpose of the monitoring. The Keetch-Byram Drought Index showed the best performance for predicting fire occurrence for all LULC classes, and forests and deforested areas individually. Despite its simplicity, the Angstrom index stood out due to its good performance in the prediction of days with more than six hotspots.

Assessment of fire hazard weather indices in theeastern Amazon: a case study for different land uses / Avaliação dos índices climáticos de perigo de incêndio na Amazôniaoriental: um estudo de caso para diferentes usos do solo

The fire frequency in the Amazon increased rapidly after the 1990s due to deforestation and forest degradation, and it is expected to increase in response to climate change. We analyzed the fire occurrence and assessed seven fire hazard indices in the municipality of Canaã dos Carajás, in the eastern Amazon, for different land use and land cover (LULC) types. We used data from three weather stations located at different heights to compare the performance of the indices using skill scores and success percentages for each LULC. Overall most hotspots occurred in deforested areas and native forests, which were the main LULC types, while few were observed in rupestrian fields, urban areas, and mining areas. However, forests presented the lowest number of hotspots per unit area, especially inside protected areas, and all hotspots in forest areas were observed after a severe drought in 2015. The performance of the fire indices varied as a function of the LULC class and the weather station considered, which indicates the importance of choosing the most appropriate location of the station according to the purpose of the monitoring. The Keetch-Byram Drought Index showed the best performance for predicting fire occurrence for all LULC classes, and forests and deforested areas individually. Despite its simplicity, the Angstrom index stood out due to its good performance in the prediction of days with more than six hotspots.(AU)

A frequência dos incêndios na Amazônia aumentou rapidamente após a década de 1990 devido ao desmatamento e degradação florestal, e espera-se que continue aumentando em resposta às mudanças climáticas. Analisamos a ocorrência de incêndios e avaliamos sete índices de perigo de incêndio no município de Canaã dos Carajás, na Amazônia oriental, para diferentes tipos de uso e cobertura do solo. Usamos dados de três estações meteorológicas situadas em diferentes altitudes para comparar o desempenho dos índices usando skill scores e porcentagens de sucesso para cada uso do solo. Em geral, a maior parte dos focos de calor ocorreu em áreas desmatadas e florestas nativas, que têm as maiores áreas de cobertura no município, enquanto poucos focos foram observados nas áreas de campo rupestre, urbanas e de mineração. No entanto, as florestas apresentaram o menor número de focos de calor por unidade de área, especialmente dentro de áreas protegidas, e todos os focos em floresta foram observados após uma seca severa em 2015. O desempenho dos índices de incêndio variou em função do uso do solo e da estação meteorológica utilizada, mostrando a importância da escolha da localização apropriada da estação, conforme o objetivo do monitoramento. O Índice de Seca Keetch-Byram apresentou o melhor desempenho para predizer a ocorrência de incêndios considerando todos os usos do solo, e para as áreas de floresta e desmatadas separadamente. Apesar de sua simplicidade, o índice de Angstrom se destacou por seu desempenho na predição de dias com mais de seis focos de calor detectados.(AU)