Virtual Exploration of Safe Entry Zones in the Brainstem: Comprehensive Definition and Analysis of the Operative Approach.

BACKGROUND: A detailed and accurate understanding of the intrinsic brainstem anatomy and the interrelationship between its internal tracts and nuclei and external landmarks is of paramount importance for safe and effective brainstem surgery. Using anatomical models can be an important step in increasing such understanding. In the present study, we have shown the applicability of our developed virtual 3-dimensional (3D) model in depicting the safe entry zones (SEZs) to the brainstem. METHODS: Accurate 3D virtual models of brainstem elements were created using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography to depict the brainstem SEZs. RESULTS: All the described SEZs to different parts of the brainstem were successfully depicted using our 3D virtual models. CONCLUSIONS: The virtual models provide an immersive experience of brainstem anatomy, allowing users to understand the intricacies of the microdissection that is necessary to appropriately work through the brainstem nuclei and tracts toward a particular target. The models provide an unparalleled learning environment to understand the SEZs into the brainstem that can be used for training and research.

Cerebrovascular Operative Anatomy: An Immersive 3D and Virtual Reality Description.

BACKGROUND: The innate detail of the cerebrovasculature is a demonstration of the structural complexity exhibited within the nervous system and highlights the challenges intrinsic to surgically influencing this system. Bridging the knowledge gap between the 2-dimentional learning environment and the 3-dimensional (3D) clinical setting is a challenge requiring experience. Computer graphic technology provides an opportunity for the learner to step into a new era of learning via the use of interactive 3D models and virtual reality. OBJECTIVE: To create virtually anatomically accurate cerebrovascular models with superior detail and visual appeal. METHODS: High-resolution angiographic radiological studies were utilized to create virtual 3D models which were edited for anatomical accuracy and artistry post-processing. RESULTS: We have created anatomically realistic and detailed 3D virtual models of the cerebrovascular structures including the arterial and venous systems. The relevant surgical anatomy of the bony and brain structures was also included. In addition, these models were used to illustrate the pathoanatomy of a deep vascular malformation to demonstrate the potential of this technology. These models allow user interactivity in the 3D environment for improved understanding of anatomical relationships. CONCLUSION: Advances in computer graphics have invited a new era of education and experiential learning. The authors have created an immersive virtual 3D model of the cerebrovasculature to augment education, research, and clinical applications.

Operative Anatomy of the Human Skull: A Virtual Reality Expedition.

INTRODUCTION: The human cranial vault possesses an incredible, complex anatomical intricacy. Bridging the divide between 2-dimensional (2D) learning resources and the 3-dimensional (3D) world in which the anatomy becomes clinically relevant poses an intellectual challenge. Advances in computer graphics and modelling technologies have allowed increasingly accurate and representative resources to supplement cadaveric dissection specimens. OBJECTIVE: To create accurate virtual models of all cranial bones to augment education, research, and clinical endeavours. METHODS: Through a careful analysis of osteological specimens and high-resolution radiographic studies, a highly accurate virtual model of the human skull was created and annotated with relevant anatomical landmarks. RESULTS: The skull was divided into 6 major segments including frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, parietal, and occipital bones. These bones were thoroughly annotated to demonstrate the intricate anatomical features. CONCLUSION: This virtual model has the potential to serve as a valuable resource for educational, research, and clinical endeavours, and demonstrates the significance of advances in computer modelling that can contribute to our understanding of neurosurgical anatomical substrates.