The Role of Surgery in "Oligometastatic" Pancreas Cancer.

The majority of patients diagnosed with pancreatic cancer already have metastatic disease at the time of presentation, which results in a 5-year survival rate of only 13%. However, multiagent chemotherapy regimens can stabilize the disease in select patients with limited metastatic disease. For such patients, a combination of curative-intent therapy and systemic therapy may potentially enhance outcomes compared to using systemic therapy alone. Of note, the evidence supporting this approach is primarily derived from retrospective studies and may carry a significant selection bias. Looking ahead, ongoing prospective trials are exploring the efficacy of curative-intent therapy in managing oligometastatic pancreatic cancer and the implementation of treatment strategies based on specific biomarkers. The emergence of these trials, coupled with the development of less invasive therapeutic modalities, provides hope for patients with oligometastatic pancreatic cancer.

Uncertainty Profiles and Treatment Preferences for Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms.

INTRODUCTION: Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs) are pancreatic premalignant lesions frequently detected incidentally. Choosing between surgery and surveillance for IPMNs is rooted in uncertainty. We characterized patient preferences in IPMN management, and examined associations with patients' uncertainty profiles (risk perception, risk attitude, and uncertainty tolerance). METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey drawn from a national opt-in panel. We simulated an encounter following an incidental computed tomography scan finding of an IPMN with a 5% cancer risk. We elicited participants' preferred treatment (surgery versus surveillance). Participant cancer risk perception, risk attitude (risk seeking versus risk averse), and uncertainty tolerance (comfort with the unknown) were determined using validated measures. Multivariate regression models assessed for independent predictors of treatment preference and risk perception. RESULTS: The sample included 520 participants, ages 40-70, racially representative of the US population. Participants preferred surveillance (n = 331, 64%) over surgery (n = 189, 36%). Patients were significantly more likely to prefer surgery as their cancer risk perception increased (absolute difference = 12% from 1.0 standard deviation below to 1.0 standard deviation above the mean, 95% CI 3.5-20.2). Treatment preference was not significantly associated with risk attitude (P = 0.068) or uncertainty tolerance (P = 0.755). However, initial cancer risk perception was significantly associated with both uncertainty tolerance (P = 0.013) and baseline cancer anxiety (risk perception 16.4% versus 65%, not worried at all versus extremely worried, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Patient preference varies widely for IPMN and is significantly associated with cancer risk perception, which is, in turn, significantly associated with uncertainty tolerance and cancer anxiety. These findings argue for the preference-sensitive nature of IPMN treatment decisions.

Outcomes in intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm-derived pancreatic cancer differ from PanIN-derived pancreatic cancer.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN)-derived pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) management is generally extrapolated from pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN)-derived PDAC guidelines. However, these are biologically divergent, and heterogeneity further exists between tubular and colloid subtypes. METHODS: Consecutive upfront surgery patients with PanIN-derived and IPMN-derived PDAC were retrospectively identified from international centers (2000-2019). One-to-one propensity score matching for clinicopathologic factors generated three cohorts: IPMN-derived versus PanIN-derived PDAC, tubular IPMN-derived versus PanIN-derived PDAC, and tubular versus colloid IPMN-derived PDAC. Overall survival (OS) was compared using Kaplan-Meier and log-rank tests. Multivariable Cox regression determined corresponding hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). RESULTS: The median OS (mOS) in 2350 PanIN-derived and 700 IPMN-derived PDAC patients was 23.0 and 43.1 months (P < 0.001), respectively. PanIN-derived PDAC had worse T-stage, CA19-9, grade, and nodal status. Tubular subtype had worse T-stage, CA19-9, grade, nodal status, and R1 margins, with a mOS of 33.7 versus 94.1 months (P < 0.001) in colloid. Matched (n = 495), PanIN-derived and IPMN-derived PDAC had mOSs of 30.6 and 42.8 months (P < 0.001), respectively. In matched (n = 341) PanIN-derived and tubular IPMN-derived PDAC, mOS remained poorer (27.7 vs 37.4, P < 0.001). Matched tubular and colloid cancers (n = 112) had similar OS (P = 0.55). On multivariable Cox regression, PanIN-derived PDAC was associated with worse OS than IPMN-derived (HR: 1.66, 95% CI: 1.44-1.90) and tubular IPMN-derived (HR: 1.53, 95% CI: 1.32-1.77) PDAC. Colloid and tubular subtype was not associated with OS (P = 0.16). CONCLUSIONS: PanIN-derived PDAC has worse survival than IPMN-derived PDAC supporting distinct outcomes. Although more indolent, colloid IPMN-derived PDAC has similar survival to tubular after risk adjustment.

Interobserver Variability in the International Study Group for Pancreas Surgery (ISGPS)-Defined Complications After Pancreatoduodenectomy: An International Cross-Sectional Multicenter Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the interobserver variability for complications of pancreatoduodenectomy as defined by the International Study Group for Pancreatic Surgery (ISGPS) and others. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Good interobserver variability for the definitions of surgical complications is of major importance in comparing surgical outcomes between and within centers. However, data on interobserver variability for pancreatoduodenectomy-specific complications are lacking. METHODS: International cross-sectional multicenter study including 52 raters from 13 high-volume pancreatic centers in 8 countries on 3 continents. Per center, 4 experienced raters scored 30 randomly selected patients after pancreatoduodenectomy. In addition, all raters scored six standardized case vignettes. This variability and the 'within centers' variability were calculated for twofold scoring (no complication/grade A vs grade B/C) and threefold scoring (no complication/grade A vs grade B vs grade C) of postoperative pancreatic fistula (POPF), post-pancreatoduodenectomy hemorrhage (PPH), chyle leak (CL), bile leak (BL), and delayed gastric emptying (DGE). Interobserver variability is presented with Gwet's AC-1 measure for agreement. RESULTS: Overall, 390 patients after pancreatoduodenectomy were included. The overall agreement rate for the standardized cases vignettes for twofold scoring was 68% (95%-CI: 55%-81%, AC1 score: moderate agreement) and for threefold scoring 55% (49%-62%, AC1 score: fair agreement). The mean 'within centers' agreement for twofold scoring was 84% (80%-87%, AC1 score; substantial agreement). CONCLUSION: The interobserver variability for the ISGPS defined complications of pancreatoduodenectomy was too high even though the 'within centers' agreement was acceptable. Since these findings will decrease the quality and validity of clinical studies, ISGPS has started efforts aimed at reducing the interobserver variability.

What is the optimal surgical approach for ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreatic neck? - a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The appropriate surgical approach for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is determined by the tumor's relation to the porto-mesenteric axis. Although the extent and location of lymphadenectomy is dependent on the type of resection, a pancreatoduodenectomy (PD), distal pancreatectomy (DP), or total pancreatectomy (TP) are considered equivalent oncologic operations for pancreatic neck tumors. Therefore, we aimed to assess differences in histopathological and oncological outcomes for surgical approaches in the treatment of pancreatic neck tumors. METHODS: Patients with resected PDAC located in the pancreatic neck were identified from the National Cancer Database (2004-2020). Patients with metastatic disease were excluded. Furthermore, patients with 90-day mortality and R2-resections were excluded from the multivariable Cox-regression analysis. RESULTS: Among 846 patients, 58% underwent PD, 25% DP, and 17% TP with similar R0-resection rates (p = 0.722). Significant differences were observed in nodal positivity (PD:44%, DP:34%, TP:57%, p < 0.001) and mean-number of examined lymph nodes (PD:17.2 ± 10.4, DP:14.7 ± 10.5, TP:21.2 ± 11.0, p < 0.001). Furthermore, inadequate lymphadenectomy (< 12 nodes) was observed in 30%, 44%, and 19% of patients undergoing PD, DP, and TP, respectively (p < 0.001). Multivariable analysis yielded similar overall survival after DP (HR:0.83, 95%CI:0.63-1.11), while TP was associated with worse survival (HR:1.43, 95%CI:1.08-1.89) compared to PD. CONCLUSION: While R0-rates are similar amongst all approaches, DP is associated with inadequate lymphadenectomy which may result in understaging disease. However, this had no negative influence on survival. In the premise that an oncological resection of the pancreatic neck tumor is feasible with a partial pancreatectomy, no benefit is observed by performing a TP.

The impact of metastatic sites on survival Rates and predictors of extended survival in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer.

BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine the role of site-specific metastatic patterns over time and assess factors associated with extended survival in metastatic PDAC. Half of all patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) present with metastatic disease. The site of metastasis plays a crucial role in clinical decision making due to its prognostic value. METHODS: We examined 56,757 stage-IV PDAC patients from the National Cancer Database (2016-2019), categorizing them by metastatic site: multiple, liver, lung, brain, bone, carcinomatosis, or other. The site-specific prognostic value was assessed using log-rank tests while time-varying effects were assessed by Aalen's linear hazards model. Factors associated with extended survival (>3years) were assessed with logistic regression. RESULTS: Median overall survival (mOS) in patients with distant lymph node-only metastases (9.0 months) and lung-only metastases (8.1 months) was significantly longer than in patients with liver-only metastases (4.6 months, p < 0.001). However, after six months, the metastatic site lost prognostic value. Logistic regression identified extended survivors (3.6 %) as more likely to be younger, Hispanic, privately insured, Charlson-index <2, having received chemotherapy, or having undergone primary or distant site surgery (all p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: While synchronous liver metastases are associated with worse outcomes than lung-only and lymph node-only metastases, this predictive value is diminished after six months. Therefore, treatment decisions beyond this time should not primarily depend on the metastatic site. Extended survival is possible in a small subset of patients with favorable tumor biology and good conditional status, who are more likely to undergo aggressive therapies.

Quantifying Patient Risk Threshold in Managing Pancreatic Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to better understand patients' treatment preferences and quantify the level of cancer risk at which treatment preferences change (risk threshold) to inform better counseling of patients with intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs). SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: The complexity of IPMN management provides an opportunity to align treatment with individual preference. METHODS: We surveyed a sample of healthy volunteers simulating a common scenario: undergoing an imaging study that incidentally identifies an IPMN. In the scenario, the estimated risk of cancer in the IPMN was 5%. Patients were asked their treatment preference (surgery or surveillance), to quantify the level of cancer risk in the IPMN at which their treatment preference would change (i.e. risk threshold), and their level of cancer anxiety as measured on a 5-point Likert scale. We examined associations between participant characteristics, treatment preferences, and risk threshold using multivariable linear regression. RESULTS: The median risk threshold among the 520 participants was 25% (IQR 2.3-50%). The risk threshold had a bimodal distribution: 40% of participants had a risk threshold between 0-10% and 47% had a risk threshold above 30%. When informed that the risk of cancer was 5%, 62% of participants (n=323) preferred surveillance, and the remaining 38% (n=197) preferred surgery. After adjusting for potential confounders, participants who expressed "worry" or "extreme worry" about the malignancy risk of IPMN had significantly lower risk thresholds than participants who were "not at all worried" (Coefficient -12, 95%CI -21 to -2, P=0.015 and Coefficient -18, 95%CI -29 to -8, P<0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Participants varied in treatment preference and risk threshold of incidentally identified IPMNs. Given the uncertainty in estimating the true malignant potential of IPMNs, a better understanding of a patient's risk threshold, as influenced by patient concern about malignancy, will help inform the shared decision-making process.

Defining the Minimal and Optimal Thresholds for Lymph Node Resection and Examination for Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasm Derived Pancreatic Cancer: A Multicenter Retrospective Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To establish minimal and optimal lymphadenectomy thresholds for intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN)-derived pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and evaluate their prognostic value. BACKGROUND: Current guidelines recommend a minimum of 12-15 lymph nodes (LNs) in PDAC. This is largely based on pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN)-derived PDAC, a biologically distinct entity from IPMN-derived PDAC. METHODS: Multicenter retrospective study including consecutive patients undergoing upfront surgery for IPMN-derived PDAC was conducted. The minimum cut-off for lymphadenectomy was defined as the maximum number of LNs where a significant node positivity difference was observed. Maximally selected log-rank statistic was used to derive the optimal lymphadenectomy cut-off (maximize survival). Kaplan-Meier curves and log-rank tests were used to analyze overall survival (OS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS). Multivariable Cox-regression was used to determine hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). RESULTS: In 341 patients with resected IPMN-derived PDAC, the minimum number of LNs needed to ensure accurate nodal staging was 10 (P=0.040), whereas ≥20 LNs was the optimal number associated with improved OS (80.3 vs. 37.2 mo, P<0.001). Optimal lymphadenectomy was associated with improved OS [HR:0.57 (95%CI 0.39-0.83)] and RFS [HR:0.70 (95%CI 0.51-0.97)] on multivariable Cox-regression. On sub-analysis the optimal lymphadenectomy cut-offs for pancreatoduodenectomy, distal pancreatectomy, and total pancreatectomy were 20 (P<0.001), 23 (P=0.160), and 25 (P=0.008). CONCLUSION: In IPMN-derived PDAC, lymphadenectomy with at least 10 lymph nodes mitigates under-staging, and at least 20 lymph nodes is associated with the improved survival. Specifically, for pancreatoduodenectomy and total pancreatectomy, 20 and 25 lymph nodes were the optimal cut-offs.

Deep Learning Applications in Pancreatic Cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal gastrointestinal malignancies. Despite advances in cross-sectional imaging, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgical techniques, the 5-year overall survival is only 12%. With the advent and rapid adoption of AI across all industries, we present a review of applications of DL in the care of patients diagnosed with PC. A review of different DL techniques with applications across diagnosis, management, and monitoring is presented across the different pathological subtypes of pancreatic cancer. This systematic review highlights AI as an emerging technology in the care of patients with pancreatic cancer.

Progression of Site-Specific Recurrence of Pancreatic Cancer and Implications for Treatment.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to analyze post-recurrence progression in context of recurrence sites and assess implications for post-recurrence treatment. BACKGROUND: Most patients with resected pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) recur within two years. Different survival outcomes for location-specific patterns of recurrence are reported, highlighting their prognostic value. However, a lack of understanding of post-recurrence progression and survival remains. METHODS: This retrospective analysis included surgically treated PDAC patients at the NYU-Langone Health (2010-2021). Sites of recurrence were identified at time of diagnosis and further follow-up. Kaplan-Meier curves, log-rank test, and Cox-regression analyses were applied to assess survival outcomes. RESULTS: Recurrence occurred in 57.3% (196/342) patients with a median time to recurrence of 11.3 months (95%CI:12.6 to 16.5). First site of recurrence was local in 43.9% patients, liver in 23.5%, peritoneal in 8.7%, lung in 3.6%, while 20.4% had multiple sites of recurrence. Progression to secondary sites was observed in 11.7%. Only lung involvement was associated with significantly longer survival after recurrence compared to other sites (16.9 months vs. 8.49 months, P=0.003). In local recurrence, 21 (33.3%) patients were alive after one year without progression to secondary sites. This was associated with a CA19-9 of <100U/ml at time of primary diagnosis (P=0.039), nodal negative disease (P=0.023), and well-moderate differentiation (P=0.042) compared to patients with progression. CONCLUSION: Except for lung recurrence, post-recurrence survival after PDAC resection is associated with poor survival. A subset of patients with local-only recurrence do not quickly succumb to systemic spread. This is associated with markers for favorable tumor biology, making them candidates for potential curative re-resections when feasible.

Association between surgical delay and outcomes among patients with invasive cutaneous melanoma.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between surgical delay and outcomes for patients with cutaneous melanoma is understudied. The objectives of this study were to determine the impact of surgical delay on regional nodal involvement and mortality in patients with cutaneous melanoma. METHODS: Retrospective study of patients diagnosed with clinically node-negative invasive cutaneous melanoma from 2004 to 2018. Outcomes included regional lymph node disease and overall survival. Multivariable logistic regression and Cox proportional-hazards models were constructed to adjust for pertinent clinical factors. RESULTS: Of 423,001 patients, 21.8% experienced a surgical delay (≥45 days). These patients were more likely to have nodal involvement (OR1.09; P â€‹= â€‹0.01). Surgical delay (HR1.14; P â€‹< â€‹0.001), Black race (HR1.34; P â€‹= â€‹0.002), and Medicaid (HR1.92; P â€‹< â€‹0.001) were associated with lower survival. Patients treated at academic/research (HR0.87; P â€‹< â€‹0.001) or integrated network cancer programs (HR0.89; P â€‹= â€‹0.001) had improve survival. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical delay was frequent and resulted in higher rates of lymph node involvement and decreased overall survival.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Synchronous and Metachronous Bilateral Breast Cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Significant racial and ethnic disparities exist in breast cancer treatment and survival. However, studies characterizing these disparities among patients developing bilateral breast cancers (BBC) are lacking. The purpose of this study is to understand the association between race and ethnicity, sociodemographic factors, clinical variables, treatment, and mortality in patients with BBC--synchronous bilateral breast cancer (sBBC) or metachronous bilateral breast cancer (mBBC). METHODS: Patients diagnosed with mBBC or sBBC in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program between 2010 and 2016 were examined. sBBC was defined as contralateral breast cancer <1 year after the initial cancer diagnosis, and mBBC was contralateral cancer ≥1 year. Univariable analysis examined sociodemographic, clinical, and treatment variables. Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox regression models evaluated disease-specific mortality. RESULTS: Of the 11,493 patients that met inclusion criteria, 9575 (83.3%) had sBBC, and 1918 (16.7%) had mBBC. There were significant racial and ethnic differences in stage, tumor subtype, surgical management, and chemotherapy within sBBC and mBBC groups. On adjusted multivariate analysis of all BBC patients, Black race (HR 1.42; 95%CI 1.11-1.80; p<0.005; Ref White) was associated with a higher disease-specific mortality. Conversely, patients with mBBC had a 25% relative risk reduction in disease-specific mortality (HR 0.75; 95%CI 0.61-0.92; p<0.01) compared to sBBC. Subset analysis suggested Black Race modified the effect of sBBC on mortality (p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with BBC, there are racial and ethnic disparities in clinical characteristics, treatment, and mortality. Future studies should focus on strategies to reduce these disparities.

Diagnosis and management of choledochal cysts.

BACKGROUND: Choledochal cysts (CCs) are rare cystic dilatations of the intrahepatic and/or extrahepatic bile ducts. We review the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of CCs. METHODS: MEDLINE/PubMed and Web of Science databases were queried for "choledochal cyst", "bile duct cyst", "choledochocele", and "Caroli disease". Data were synthesized and systematically reviewed. RESULTS: Classified according to the Todani Classification, CCs are generally believed to arise secondary to reflux of pancreatic enzymes into the biliary tree due to anomalous pancreaticobiliary duct union. Complications of CCs include abdominal pain, jaundice, cystolithiasis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, liver abscess, liver cirrhosis and malignant transformation (3-7.5%). Radiological and endoscopic imaging is the cornerstone of CC diagnosis and full delineation of cyst anatomy is imperative for proper management. Management is generally guided by cyst classification with complete cyst excision necessary for CCs with high potential of malignant transformation such as types I and IV. 5-year overall survival after choledochal cyst excision is 95.5%. CONCLUSION: Most CCs should undergo surgical intervention to mitigate the risk of cyst related complications such as cholangitis and malignant transformation.

Role of genetic testing in hepatic, pancreatic, and biliary cancers.

Hepatic, pancreatic, and biliary (HPB) cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) cause a disproportionate amount of the global cancer-related mortality. Despite advances in surgical technique and improved systemic therapies, overall 5-year survival remains dismal, especially for patients with pancreatic and biliary cancer. Historically, systemic therapies for patients with HPB cancers were administered in a "one-size-fits-all" approach due to limited reliable data on efficacy for specific patient populations. However, recent advances in genetic testing techniques have greatly improved our understanding of HPB oncogenesis, shedding light on specific genetic mutations responsible for progression from physiologic cellular regulation to uninhibited cellular replication and invasive cancer. Investigations into the oncogenesis of HPB cancers have revealed multiple actionable genetic variants, as well as increased susceptibilities to currently available systemic therapies. For example, patients with PDAC and a known BRCA mutation are more likely to benefit from FOLFIRINOX or gemcitabine plus cisplatin. While patients with CCA and a IDH1 mutation may benefit from ivosidenib. As a result, many national and societal guidelines now recommend some form of genetic testing in the workup of patients with HPB cancers. We herein review the role of genetic testing in these aggressive cancers including DNA sequencing techniques, clinically relevant mutations, therapeutic implications, and current clinical recommendations.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Emerging therapeutic strategies.

The seventh leading cause of cancer-related death globally, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) involves the exocrine pancreas and constitutes greater than 90% of all pancreatic cancers. Surgical resection in combination with systemic chemotherapy with or without radiation remains the mainstay of treatment and the only potentially curative treatment option. While there has been improvement in systemic chemotherapy, long-term survival among patients with PDAC remains poor. Improvement in the understanding of tumorigenesis, genetic mutations, the tumor microenvironment (TME), immunotherapies, as well as targeted therapies continued to drive advances in PDAC treatment. We herein review the TME, genetic landscape, as well as various metabolic pathways associated with PDAC tumorigenesis relative to emerging therapies.

Current Perspectives on the Surgical Management of Perihilar Cholangiocarcinoma.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) represents nearly 15% of all primary liver cancers and 2% of all cancer-related deaths worldwide. Perihilar cholangiocarcinoma (pCCA) accounts for 50-60% of all CCA. First described in 1965, pCCAs arise between the second-order bile ducts and the insertion of the cystic duct into the common bile duct. CCA typically has an insidious onset and commonly presents with advanced, unresectable disease. Complete surgical resection is technically challenging, as tumor proximity to the structures of the central liver often necessitates an extended hepatectomy to achieve negative margins. Intraoperative frozen section can aid in assuring negative margins and complete resection. Portal lymphadenectomy provides important prognostic and staging information. In specialized centers, vascular resection and reconstruction can be performed to achieve negative margins in appropriately selected patients. In addition, minimally invasive surgical techniques (e.g., robotic surgery) are safe, feasible, and provide equivalent short-term oncologic outcomes. Neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy followed by liver transplantation provides a potentially curative option for patients with unresectable disease. New trials are needed to investigate novel chemotherapies, immunotherapies, and targeted therapies to better control systemic disease in the adjuvant setting and, potentially, downstage disease in the neoadjuvant setting.

Experimental drug treatments for hepatocellular carcinoma: clinical trial failures 2015 to 2021.

INTRODUCTION: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major health problem worldwide with limited systemic therapy options. Since the approval of sorafenib in 2008, no systemic therapy has provided a sustained/robust/survival benefit for patients with advanced HCC until recently. Many initially promising therapies have been trialed, but survival outcomes remained stagnant. Knowledge concerning previous treatment failures may help inform future therapeutic approaches. AREA COVERED: This article reviews recent advances in the treatment of HCC. Despite some recent success, many systemic and locoregional therapies have failed to produce significant improvements in outcome. These treatment failures are examined and insight into pathways for future success are discussed. EXPERT OPINION: Combination atezolizumab and bevacizumab has changed the landscape of systemic treatment for patients with HCC when it became the first therapy after demonstrating improve outcomes over sorafenib. Clinical trials in patients with advanced HCC have inherent difficulty with challenges to determine if a patient's declining liver function is secondary to disease progression, worsening cirrhosis, or drug toxicity, which may skew results. As we gain more knowledge of underlying genetic alterations behind the pathophysiology of the development of HCC, molecular markers may be identified to assist in predicting which patients would respond to a specific therapy.

Safety, efficacy, and tolerability of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of mortality worldwide with an increasing incidence due to escalating rates of obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Unfortunately, a majority of patients with HCC present with advanced disease. The immune checkpoint inhibitor atezolizumab, a PD-L1 inhibitor, in combination with bevacizumab, anti-VEGF, has become the new standard of care for patients with advanced HCC after demonstrating improved overall and progression free survival over sorafenib. In this review, we discuss the evolving role of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of HCC and their safety, efficacy, and tolerability.