Physiological and genomic analyses of cobalamin (vitamin B12)-auxotrophy of Lysobacter auxotrophicus sp. nov., a methionine-auxotrophic chitinolytic bacterium isolated from chitin-treated soil.

A novel bacterium, designated 5-21aT, isolated from chitin-treated upland soil, exhibits methionine (Met) auxotrophy and chitinolytic activity. A physiological experiment revealed the cobalamin (synonym, vitamin B12)(Cbl)-auxotrophic property of strain 5-21aT. The newly determined complete genomic sequence indicated that strain 5-21aT possesses only the putative gene for Cbl-dependent Met synthase (MetH) and lacks that for the Cbl-independent one (MetE), which implies the requirement of Cbl for Met-synthesis in strain 5-21aT. The set of genes for the upstream (corrin ring synthesis) pathway of Cbl synthesis is absent in the genome of strain 5-21aT, which explains the Cbl-auxotrophy of 5-21aT. This strain was characterized via a polyphasic approach to determine its taxonomic position. The nucleotide sequences of two copies of the 16S rRNA gene of strain 5-21aT indicated the highest similarities to Lysobacter soli DCY21T(99.8 and 99.9 %) and Lysobacter panacisoli CJ29T(98.7 and 98.8 %, respectively), whose Cbl-auxotrophic properties were revealed in this study. The principal respiratory quinone was Q-8. The predominant cellular fatty acids were iso-C15:0, iso-C16:0 and iso-C17:1 ω9c. The complete genome sequence of strain 5-21aT revealed that the genome size was 4 155 451 bp long and the G+C content was 67.87 mol%. The average nucleotide identity and digital DNA-DNA hybridization values between strain 5-21aT and its most closely phylogenetic relative L. soli DCY21T were 88.8 and 36.5%, respectively. Based on genomic, chemotaxonomic, phenotypic and phylogenetic data, strain 5-21aT represents a novel species in the genus Lysobacter, for which the name Lyobacter auxotrophicus sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 5-21aT (=NBRC 115507T=LMG 32660T).

Cicada-Wing-Inspired Nanopillar Hydrogels Consisting of Poly(vinyl alcohol) and Poly(methacrylic acid) for Capturing Bacteria through Their Flexibility and Wide Range of Motion.

The human race has learned about countering bacterial infection from other living organisms. In this study, cicada-wing-inspired hydrophilic nanopillars were prepared using commercially available porous alumina templates without the use of specialized equipment and additional materials. Hydrophilic polymers of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly(methacrylic acid) (poly(MAAc)) were used to construct these nanopillars. The water-insoluble nanopillars formed by thermal cross-linking between the hydroxy and carboxy groups were highly flexible, with no significant structural disruption being observed on tilting them. The nanopillars captured Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, despite their negatively charged surface leading an electrostatic repulsion with bacteria. The wing of the cicada has evolved to remain dry and maintain its lightweight. The water-containing cicada-wing structure may be an unknown encounter for bacteria and, thus, may become a countermeasure against the ever-changing bacteria.

Fabrication of Cationic Poly(vinyl alcohol) Films Cross-Linked Using Copolymers Containing Quaternary Ammonium Cations, Benzoxaborole, and Carboxy Groups.

Water-insoluble cationic poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films were fabricated using a mixed aqueous solution of PVA and poly([2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride (METAC)-co-methacrylic acid (MAAc)-co-5-methacrylamido-1,2-benzoxaborole (MAAmBO)) copolymer (3D). The surface of the PVA film is typically negatively charged, and simple fabrication methods for water-insoluble PVA films with cationic surface charges are required to expand their application fields. METAC, which has a permanent positive charge owing to the presence of a quaternary ammonium cation, was selected as the cationic unit. The MAAc and MAAmBO units were used as two types of cross-linking structures for the thermal cross-linking of the hydroxy and carboxy groups of the MAAc unit (covalent bonding) as well as the diol and benzoxaborole groups of the MAAmBO unit (dynamic covalent bonding). The films were thermally cross-linked at 135 °C for 4 h without the addition of materials. After immersion in surplus water at 80 °C for 3 h, the cross-linked PVA/3D films retained almost 100% of their weights. The ζ-potential of the water-insoluble PVA/3D film was 9.4 ± 0.8 mV. The PVA/3D film was strongly dyed using anionic acid red 1 (AR1) because of its positively charged surface. Interestingly, it could also be slightly dyed using cationic methylene blue (MB) and became transparent (original state) after immersion in water for 2 days. These results suggested that positive and negative charges coexisted in the PVA/3D film, and the surface properties were positively inclined. Moreover, the degree of hemolysis of the PVA/3D films was similar to that of the negative control, which showed high blood compatibility. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the fabrication of water-insoluble cationic PVA films using two types of cross-linking structures containing carboxy and benzoxaborole groups. The cross-linked PVA films were analyzed using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and contact angle (CA) and ζ-potential measurement, as well as by determining the mechanical properties, adsorption of charged molecules, and biocompatibility. These readily fabricated water-insoluble PVA films with positive charges can show potential applications in sensors, adsorption systems, and antimicrobial materials.

Development of Thermo-Responsive Polycaprolactone-Polydimethylsiloxane Shrinkable Nanofibre Mesh.

A thermally activated shape memory polymer based on the mixture of polycaprolactone (PCL) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was fabricated into the nanofibre mesh using the electrospinning process. The added percentages of the PDMS segment in the PCL-based polymer influenced the mechanical properties. Polycaprolactone serves as a switching segment to adjust the melting temperature of the shape memory electro-spun PCL-PDMS scaffolds to our body temperature at around 37 °C. Three electro-spun PCL-PDMS copolymer nanofibre samples, including PCL6-PDMS4, PCL7-PDMS3 and PCL8-PDMS2, were characterised to study the thermal and mechanical properties along with the shape memory responses. The results from the experiment showed that the PCL switching segment ratio determines the crystallinity of the copolymer nanofibres, where a higher PCL ratio results in a higher degree of crystallinity. In contrast, the results showed that the mechanical properties of the copolymer samples decreased with the PCL composition ratio. After five thermomechanical cycles, the fabricated copolymer nanofibres exhibited excellent shape memory properties with 98% shape fixity and above 100% recovery ratio. Moreover, biological experiments were applied to evaluate the biocompatibility of the fabricated PCL-PDMS nanofibre mesh. Owing to the thermally activated shape memory performance, the electro-spun PCL-PDMS fibrous mesh has a high potential for biomedical applications such as medical shrinkable tubing and wire.

Chemical profile and in vivo toxicity evaluation of unripe Citrus aurantifolia essential oil.

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle (syn. C. MEDICA var. ACIDA Brandis) (family: Rutaceae) essential oil is one of the cheapest oils found in local markets. Although, it is generally accepted as non-toxic to vital organs and cells, majority of people are cynical about it usage. Herein, the present study reports the chemical composition and in vivo oral toxicity study of unripe C. aurantifolia essential oil found in Ghana. The toxicity of C. aurantifolia essential oil extract was investigated via oral administration using two methods: The acute toxicity single dose study (SDS) and the repeated dose method. The oil exhibited no acute toxicity but in the sub-chronic studies, the effects was dose and time-dependent. Chemical profile investigation of the oil showed 9 constituent of phytochemicals (Germacrene isomers (61.2%), Pineen (14%), Linalool dimmer (2.9%), Bornane (11%), Citral (2.9%), Anethole (1.5%), Anisole (1.1%), Safrole (0.3%) and Demitol (0.6%)). Histopathological studies revealed conditions such as necrosis, edema and inflammatory reaction in the liver, spleen and kidneys. Marginal upsurge of biochemical parameters above normal and elevated levels of lymphocytes (35.20-46.40 g/dL) demonstrated mild toxicity among the 100 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg dose groups at the sub-chronic stage. Low levels of hemoglobin (13.60 to 12.70 g/dL), MCV (34.20-24.0 fL), MCH (40.20-36.40 g/dL) along with high levels of liver enzymes confirmed the mild toxicity of the oil at sub-chronic stage. These results demonstrate that, despite consideration of lime essential oil as safe, it can have mild hematotoxic, nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic effects.

Evaluation of the Bactericidal and Fungicidal Activities of Poly([2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethyl Ammonium Chloride)(Poly (METAC))-Based Materials.

Poly([2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethyl ammonium chloride) (METAC) and the gels were prepared and evaluated for their bactericidal and fungicidal activities. The antimicrobial properties of poly(METAC) were tested against Escherichia coli (E. coli), Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sa. cerevisiae), methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), and Candida albicans (C. albicans). Moreover, the structural forms of the linear and cross-linked poly(METAC) were investigated for their influences on bacterial aggregation, precipitation, and cell-death. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the comparison of the antimicrobial properties of poly(METAC) and poly(METAC)-gels. The bactericidal and fungicidal activities were evaluated by determining minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), UV⁻Vis spectroscopy, and fluorescence and confocal microscopies. The MICs were found to be 123 (MSSA), 123 (MRSA), 123 (P. aeruginosa), 370 (E. coli), 123 (B. subtilis), 370 (C. albicans), and 370 µg/mL (Sa. cerevisiae), as determined by broth dilution, and 370 (MSSA), 370 (MRSA), 370 (P. aeruginosa), 3300 (E. coli), 370 (B. subtilis), 1100 (C. albicans), and >10,000 µg/mL (Sa. cerevisiae), as determined by paper disc diffusion (on solid medium). The poly(METAC)-gels achieved rapid adsorption/precipitation of bacteria via the cationic surface charge. Thus, these poly(METAC)-based polymers can potentially be used as antibacterial materials.

Rapid and Highly Sensitive Detection of Dopamine Using Conjugated Oxaborole-Based Polymer and Glycopolymer Systems.

A conjugated polymer interface consisting of an oxaborole containing polymer and a glycopolymer was used for achieving very high selectivity in dopamine (DA) detection. The optimum binding affinity between the polymers promotes the selectivity to DA through a displacement mechanism while remaining unaffected by other structurally related analogs and saccharide derivatives. Real-time detection of DA with very high selectivity and sensitivity has been demonstrated by immobilizing the polymer conjugates on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and microcantilever (MCL) sensor platforms. Using the conjugated polymer sensing layer, the SPR biosensor was capable of detecting DA in the concentration range of 1 × 10-9 to 1 × 10-4 mol L-1, whereas the MCL sensor showed a limit of detection (LOD) of 5 × 10-11 mol L-1. We find that the sensing mechanism is based on DA-induced reversible swelling of the conjugated polymer layer and this allows regeneration and reuse of the sensor multiple times. Also, we conclude that SPR is a suitable sensor platform for DA in-line detection at clinical level considering the detection time and stability, whereas MCL can achieve a much lower LOD.

Development and Characterisation of the Imiquimod Poly(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl Methacrylate) Hydrogel Dressing for Keloid Therapy.

The imiquimod-poly(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl methacrylate) hydrogel (poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel) dressing was developed for the keloid therapy application. Four groups of the hydrogels, including the imiquimod-poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel, crosslinked with 0.2 mol %, 0.4 mol %, 0.6 mol %, and 0.8 mol % of di(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate cross-linker (DEGDMA), were synthesised and characterised for fabricating the imiquimod-poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel pad. The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel was measured at approximately 28 °C and was used as a trigger to control the imiquimod loading and release. The loaded amounts of the imiquimod in the poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel, crosslinked with 0.2 mol % and 0.8 mol % of DEGDMA, were about 27.4 µg and 14.1 µg per 1 mm³ of the hydrogel, respectively. The imiquimod-release profiles of two samples were characterised in a phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution at 37 °C and the released imiquimod amount were about 45% and 46% of the total loaded imiquimod. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was utilised to analyse the cell viability of keloid fibroblasts cultured on the samples of imiquimod-poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel, crosslinked with 0.2 mol % and 0.8 mol % of DEGDMA. There was around a 34% decrease of the cell viabilities after 2 days, compared with the pure-poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel samples. Therefore, the developed imiquimod-poly(MEO2MA) hydrogel dressing can affect the proliferation of keloid fibroblasts. It should be possible to utilise the hydrogel dressing for the keloid therapy application.

Recent Advances in Dual Temperature Responsive Block Copolymers and Their Potential as Biomedical Applications.

The development of stimuli responsive polymers has progressed significantly with novel preparation techniques, which has allowed access to new materials with unique properties. Dual thermoresponsive (double temperature responsive) block copolymers are particularly of interest as their properties can change depending on the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) or upper critical solution temperature (UCST) of each segment. For instance, these block copolymers can change from being hydrophilic, to amphiphilic or to hydrophobic simply by changing the solution temperature without any additional chemicals and the block copolymers can change from being fully solubilized to self-assembled structures to macroscopic aggregation/precipitation. Based on the unique solution properties, these dual thermo-responsive block copolymers are expected to be suitable for biomedical applications. This review is divided into three parts; LCST-LCST types of block copolymers, UCST-LCST types of block copolymers, and their potential as biomedical applications.

Facile Functionalization of Electrospun Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) Nanofibers via the Benzoxaborole-Diol Interaction.

A facile functionalization method of poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) (EVOH) nanofiber meshes was demonstrated by utilizing the benzoxaborole-diol interaction between EVOH and benzoxaborole-based copolymers (BOP). EVOH and BOP were firstly mixed to prepare the quasi-gel-state solution with enough viscosity for electro-spinning. The fiber morphology was controlled via changing the mixing ratio of EVOH and BOP. The prepared EVOH/BOP nanofiber mesh showed good stability in aqueous solution. Over 97% of the nanofibers remained after the immersion test for 24 h in acid or alkali aqueous solutions without changing their morphology. Temperature and pH-responsive moieties were copolymerized with BOP, and cationic dye was easily immobilized into the nanofiber mesh via an electrostatic interaction. Therefore, the proposed functionalization technique is possible to perform on multi-functionalized molecule-incorporated nanofibers that enable the fibers to show the environmental stimuli-responsive property for the further applications of the EVOH materials.

Self-Healing and Injectable Shear Thinning Hydrogels Based on Dynamic Oxaborole-Diol Covalent Cross-Linking.

Hydrogels containing sugar and oxaborole residues with remarkable self-healing properties were synthesized by free-radical polymerization in a facile and one pot process. The strong covalent interactions between the oxaborole residues and free adjacent hydroxyl groups of the pendent sugar residues of the glycopolymer allowed the in situ formation of hydrogels achievable under either neutral or alkaline conditions. These hydrogels showed excellent self-healing and injectability behaviors in aqueous conditions and were found to be responsive to both pH and the presence of free sugars (such as glucose) in solution. Furthermore, these hydrogels can easily be reconstructed from their lyophilized powder into any desired three-dimensional scaffold. Additionally, the hydrogels can be designed to have very low cytotoxicity and hence can be used as a scaffold for cell encapsulation. With these unique properties, these biocompatible, biodegradable, rebuildable, and self-healable hydrogels offer great potential in many biomedical applications.

Temperature- and pH-Responsive Benzoboroxole-Based Polymers for Flocculation and Enhanced Dewatering of Fine Particle Suspensions.

Random copolymers based on N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) containing 2-aminoethyl methacrylamide hydrochloride (AEMA) and 5-methacrylamido-1,2-benzoboroxole (MAAmBo) were synthesized and subsequently evaluated for their performance in solid-liquid separation at various pH and temperatures. The strong interactions between benzoboroxole residues and kaolin hydroxyl groups were evaluated for the first time in the flocculation of fine particle suspensions. The lower critical solution temperatures (LCSTs) of PAMN decreases because of the hydrophobic nature of the benzoboroxole moieties, resulting in strong hydrophobic interaction at temperatures higher than the LCSTs. Temperature and pH responsive polymer, P(AEMA51-st-MAAmBo76-st-NIPAM381) (denoted as PAMN) shows the ability to induce fastest settling at a low dosage of 25 ppm and under the condition of pH 9 and 50 °C. The accelerated settling rate is considered to be due to the strong adhesion of benzoboroxole residues to the kaolin hydroxyl groups, the electrical double layer force, and the hydrophobic force. During condensation phase, increasing the pH of sediment to pH 11 could attain the most compact structure. Random copolymers containing benzoboroxole groups act as dispersants (due to pH-responsive character) rather than flocculants at pH 11, providing repulsive force that enables particles to rearrange their position and consolidate well. Through a two-step solid-liquid separation including settling phase and consolidation phase, rapid settling and compact sediment are feasible simultaneously.

pH and glucose responsive nanofibers for the reversible capture and release of lectins.

A dual pH and glucose responsive boronic acid containing nanofiber was constructed for the reversible capture and release of lectins. The effects of surface groups and pH values on selective lectin capture were investigated by fluorescence microscopy. Compared to the pristine nanofibrous membrane, glucose and galactose functionalized nanofiber surfaces showed significantly higher capture of ConA and Jacalin, under alkaline conditions. On the other hand, treatment of the modified nanofibers with an acidic solution resulted in the detachment of both the lectins and glycopolymers from the nanofiber surface. As expected, once the glycopolymers are displaced, no lectins were adhered to the nanofiber surface under alkaline conditions. These functional nanofibers can therefore be easily modified and hence can be used for quick removal of selective proteins or toxins from the solution.

Spatiotemporal control of synergistic gel disintegration consisting of boroxole- and glyco-based polymers via photoinduced proton transfer.

We demonstrate here a local- and remote-control of gel disintegration by using photoinduced proton transfer chemistry of photoacid generator (PAG). The gels were prepared by simply mixing two polymers, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-5-methacrylamido-1,2-benzoxaborole) (P(NIPAAm-co-MAAmBO)) and poly(3-gluconamidopropyl methacrylamide) (PGAPMA) via the synergistic interaction of benzoxaborole and diol groups. The o-nitrobenzaldehyde (o-NBA) was then loaded into the gel as a PAG. The benzoxaborole-diol interaction was successfully disintegrated upon UV irradiation due to the local pH decrease inside the gel. When the gel was irradiated to a specific gel region, the synergistic interactions were disintegrated only at the exposed region. Of special interest is that the whole material eventually transitioned from gel to sol state, as the generated protons diffused gradually toward the nonilluminated region. The ability of the proposed gel-sol transition system via photoinduced proton diffusion may be beneficial for not only prompt pH changes within the gel but also the design of predictive and programmable devices for drug delivery.

Study of bacterial adhesion on biomimetic temperature responsive glycopolymer surfaces.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen responsible for diseases such as bacteremia, chronic lung infection, and acute ulcerative keratitis. P. aeruginosa induced diseases can be fatal as the exotoxins and endotoxins released by the bacterium continue to damage host tissues even after the administration of antibiotics. As bacterial adhesion on cell surfaces is the first step in bacterial based pathogen infections, the control of bacteria-cell interactions is a worthwhile research target. In this work, thermally responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) [P(NIPAAm)] based biomimetic surfaces were developed to study the two major bacterial infection mechanisms, which is believed to be mediated by hydrophobic or lectin-carbohydrate interactions, using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation. Although, a greater number of P. aeruginosa adhered to the NIPAAm homopolymer modified surfaces at temperatures higher than the lower critical solution temperature (LCST), the bacterium-substratum bond stiffness was stronger between P. aeruginosa and a galactose based P(NIPAAm) surface. The high bacterial adhesion bond stiffness observed on the galactose based thermally responsive surface at 37 °C might suggest that both hydrophobic and lectin-carbohydrate interactions contribute to bacterial adhesion on cell surfaces. Our investigation also suggests that the lectin-carbohydrate interaction play a significant role in bacterial infections.

Temperature-responsive hyperbranched amine-based polymers for solid-liquid separation.

Temperature-responsive hyperbranched polymers containing primary amines as pendent groups have been synthesized for solid-liquid separation of kaolinite clay suspension. The effects of temperature, polymer charge density, and polymer architecture on particle flocculation have been investigated. Suspensions treated with the temperature-responsive amine-based hyperbranched polymers showed remarkable separation of the fine particles at a low polymer dosage of 10 ppm and at testing temperatures of 40 °C. In comparison to other polymers studied (linear and hyperbranched homopolymers and copolymers), the temperature-responsive amine-based hyperbranched copolymers showed better particle flocculation at 40 °C, as evidenced by the formation of a thinner sediment bed without compromising the amount of clay particles being flocculated. This superior solid-liquid separation performance can be explained by the hydrophobic interaction of PNIPAM segments on particle surfaces or the capture of additional free particles or small floc due to the exposure of buried positive charges (because of the phase separation of the hydrophilic amines and hydrophobic PNIPAM part) at temperatures above the lower critical solution temperature (LCST).

Poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone-co-vinyl alcohol), a versatile amphiphilic polymeric scaffold for multivalent probes.

A convenient scaffold based on poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone-co-vinyl alcohol) is proposed for presenting ligands in multivalent format. This amphiphilic polymer supports synthesis of conjugates in both organic and aqueous media, permits enzymatic processing of the ligand precursor, and, finally, offers a choice of formats for evaluation of biological activity either as a soluble inhibitor or as a capture reagent after deposition on a hydrophobic surface or standard microtiter plates.

Simple coating with pH-responsive polymer-functionalized silica nanoparticles of mixed sizes for controlled surface properties.

Different-sized silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) were functionalized by pH-responsive poly(2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDP) via surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The functionalized PDP-SiNPs were used to coat glass surfaces, polymeric nanofibers, and paper via simple coating methods such as dip, cast, and spray coating. A PDP-SiNPs mixture having different sizes was found to change the surface properties of the substrates remarkably, compared to one containing PDP-SiNPs with uniform sizes. High surface roughness was achieved with very little coating materials, which is beneficial from an economical point of view. Moreover, adsorption/desorption of PDP-SiNPs onto/from the substrates could be controlled by changing solution pH due to the protonation/deprotonation of the PDP. The surface properties of the coated substrates were analyzed by contact angle (CA) measurement, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This inexpensive system provides a simple, quick, and effective approach to changing the surface properties of substrates that could be exploited for large-scale surface modification.

Fabrication of FITC-doped silica nanoparticles and study of their cellular uptake in the presence of lectins.

Fluorescent silica nanoparticles are reported to be highly stable and biocompatible materials with high water solubility, which make them ideal candidates for biological applications. These nanoparticles can also be modified with biocompatible and targeting moieties and can be used for a variety of in vitro and in vivo applications, such as targeting, particle tracking, cargo carrier, and as contrast agents. In this study, fluorescent dye-doped silica nanoparticles were prepared by a modified Stöber method. The nanoparticles produced were surface functionalized with amine moieties for their conjugation with glucose-derived and galactose-based residues. The amine, glucose-derived, and galactose-based functionalized fluorescent silica nanoparticles were analyzed for their physiochemical properties such as sizes, polydispersities, organic layer content, and surface chemistries. The nanoparticles produced were then studied for their interactions with carbohydrate-specific lectins. These lectin bioconjugates have helped in understanding their interactions with cell-surface receptors. As expected, galactose-functionalized nanoparticles were found to specifically interact with RCA120 , as compared to other nanoparticles. These specific interactions of galactose-lectin conjugates were further studied on the hepatocytes cell surface in vitro. The aggregation of galactose-lectins conjugates on the plasma membrane was possibly due to the specific interactions of carbohydrates with cell-surface glycoproteins, hence preventing the uptake of these nanoparticles. The study has provided an interesting approach to mark the cell-surface glycoproteins with fluorescent probes using a combination of lectin-carbohydrate conjugates.

Temperature, pH, and Glucose Responsive Gels via Simple Mixing of Boroxole- and Glyco-Based Polymers.

Statistical copolymers of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) and 5-methacrylamido-1,2-benzoxaborole (MAAmBo) have been synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The solution properties of the NIPAAm homopolymers and statistical copolymers were investigated and it was found that, besides temperature and pH, the statistical copolymers were also responsive to the presence of free glucose in solution. Furthermore, responsive hydrogels and nanogels were formed spontaneously by simply mixing the statistical copolymers of P(NIPAAm-st-MAAmBO)s and well-defined glycopolymers. These gels were found to have temperature, pH, and glucose responsive properties.