Increased Natural Killer (NK)-cell cytotoxicity and Trypanosoma cruzi-specific memory B cells in subjects with discordant serology for Chagas disease.

The presence of memory T cell specific for Trypanosoma cruzi in subjects with discordant serology for Chagas disease supports a cleared infection in these subjects. Using high-dimensional flow cytometry, ELISPOT assays and quantitative PCR, antibody-secreting cells and memory B cells specific for T. cruzi, total B-cell phenotypes, innate immune responses and parasite DNA were evaluated in serodiscordant, seropositive and seronegative subjects for T. cruzi infection. T. cruzi-specific memory B cells but no antibody-secreting cells specific for T. cruzi, increased proportion of nonclassical monocytes and increased levels of polyfunctional NK cells were found in serodiscordant compared with seropositive subjects. None of the serodiscordant subjects evaluated showed detectable parasite DNA, most of them did not show cardiac abnormalities and a group of them had had confirmed positive serology for Chagas disease. The unique immune profiles in serodiscordant subjects support that T. cruzi infection was cleared or profoundly controlled in these subjects.

Trypanosoma cruzi Secreted Cyclophilin TcCyP19 as an Early Marker for Trypanocidal Treatment Efficiency.

Cyclophilins (CyPs) are a family of enzymes involved in protein folding. Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, has a 19-kDa cyclophilin, TcCyP19, that was found to be secreted in parasite stages of the CL Brener clone and recognized by sera from T. cruzi-infected mice and patients. The levels of specific antibodies against TcCyP19 in T. cruzi-infected mice and subjects before and after drug treatment were measured by an in-house enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Mice in the acute and chronic phase of infection, with successful trypanocidal treatments, showed significantly lower anti-TcCyP19 antibody levels than untreated mice. In children and adults chronically infected with T. cruzi, a significant decrease in the anti-TcCyP19 titers was observed after 12 months of etiological treatment. This decrease was maintained in adult chronic patients followed-up 30-38 months post-treatment. These results encourage further studies on TcCyP19 as an early biomarker of trypanocidal treatment efficiency.

Mixed T Helper1/T Helper2/T Cytotoxic Profile in Subjects with Chronic Chagas Disease with Hypersensitivity Reactions to Benznidazole.

Dermatitis is the most common adverse event during treatment with benznidazole in chronic Chagas disease and is probably mediated by T cells. A set of molecules representative of the different type IV hypersensitivity reactions was evaluated in the circulation and skin biopsies of Trypanosoma cruzi-infected subjects presenting dermatitis during benznidazole administration. Through cytometric bead assays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay capture techniques, the serum levels of cytokines, chemokines, proapoptotic molecules, and mediators of the activation and migration of eosinophils and T cells were measured in subjects infected with Trypanosoma cruzi who exhibited skin adverse events (n = 22) and compared with those without adverse events (n = 37) during benznidazole therapy. Serum levels of interleukin- 5 (IL-5), soluble Fas cell surface death receptor ligand (FAS-L), and interferon γ-induced protein (IP-10) significantly increased at 7 to 30 days posttreatment with benznidazole and decreased thereafter in subjects with dermatitis but not in those without dermatitis. Circulating eotaxin levels were lower in subjects with dermatitis than in those without. Two patterns emerged in the skin biopsies: a T helper 1/T cytotoxic profile and a T helper 2/T cytotoxic profile with the presence of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Increased low-density lipoprotein (LDL), glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT), uremia, and T cell activation emerged as risk factors for the development of dermatitis during benznidazole administration. These results support a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to benznidazole, involving CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and eosinophils, and a mixed cytokine profile. This study provides new insights for better management of adverse drug reactions to benznidazole. IMPORTANCE This study identified the risk factors for the development of adverse reactions to benznidazole and identified a set molecule to monitor the appearance of these reactions. This knowledge might improve the safety of benznidazole administration.

Reduced Trypanosoma cruzi-specific humoral response and enhanced T cell immunity after treatment interruption with benznidazole in chronic Chagas disease.

BACKGROUND: Interruption of benznidazole therapy due to the appearance of adverse effects, which is presumed to lead to treatment failure, is a major drawback in the treatment of chronic Chagas disease. METHODS: Trypanosoma cruzi-specific humoral and T cell responses, T cell phenotype and parasite load were measured to compare the outcome in 33 subjects with chronic Chagas disease treated with an incomplete benznidazole regimen and 58 subjects treated with the complete regimen, during a median follow-up period of 48 months. RESULTS: Both treatment regimens induced a reduction in the T. cruzi-specific antibody levels and similar rates of treatment failure when evaluated using quantitative PCR. Regardless of the regimen, polyfunctional CD4+ T cells increased in the subjects, with successful treatment outcome defined as a decrease of T. cruzi-specific antibodies. Regardless of the serological outcome, naive and central memory T cells increased after both regimens. A decrease in CD4+ HLA-DR+ T cells was associated with successful treatment in both regimens. The cytokine profiles of subjects with successful treatment showed fewer inflammatory mediators than those of the untreated T. cruzi-infected subjects. High levels of T cells expressing IL-7 receptor and low levels of CD8+ T cells expressing the programmed cell death protein 1 at baseline were associated with successful treatment following benznidazole interruption. CONCLUSIONS: These findings challenge the notion that treatment failure is the sole potential outcome of an incomplete benznidazole regimen and support the need for further assessment of the treatment protocols for chronic Chagas disease.

Circulating Cytokine and Chemokine Profiles of Trypanosoma cruzi-Infected Women During Pregnancy and Its Association With Congenital Transmission.

BACKGROUND: Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, can be transmitted to the offspring of infected women, which constitutes an epidemiologically significant parasite transmission route in nonendemic areas. It is relevant to evaluate differentially expressed factors in T. cruzi-infected pregnant women as potential markers of Chagas congenital transmission. METHODS: Circulating levels of 12 cytokines and chemokines were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or cytometric bead array in T. cruzi-infected and uninfected pregnant women in their second trimester of pregnancy and control groups of T. cruzi-infected and uninfected nonpregnant women. RESULTS: Trypanosoma cruzi-infected women showed a proinflammatory Th1-biased profile, with increased levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12p70, IL-15, and monokine induced by interferon-gamma (MIG). Uninfected pregnant women presented a biased response towards Th2/Th17/Treg profiles, with increased plasma levels of IL-5, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-17A, and IL-10. Finally, we identified that high parasitemia together with low levels of TNF-α, IL-15, and IL-17, low TNF-α/IL-10 ratio, and high IL-12p70 levels are factors associated with an increased probability of Chagas congenital transmission. CONCLUSIONS: Trypanosoma cruzi-infected pregnant women who did not transmit the infection to their babies exhibited a distinct proinflammatory cytokine profile that might serve as a potential predictive marker of congenital transmission.

B-cell profile, B-cell activating factor concentration and IgG levels in human cutaneous and mucosal leishmaniasis.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to evaluate characteristics of B cells in human tegumentary leismaniasis (TL) analysing cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), most prevalent form and mucosal leishmaniasis (ML), aggressive form characterized by the destruction of the oral-nasal-pharyngeal cavities. METHODS AND RESULTS: By flow cytometry analysis, we found decreased percentages of non-class-switched memory B cells in TL with the degree of the loss related to clinical severity. Using commercial ELISA, we reported high levels of B-cell activating factor (BAFF) and IgG preferentially in aggressive CL and markedly in ML together with decreased BAFF receptors in the latter. We also found lower levels of BAFF after clinical recovery suggesting a relation between BAFF and disease activity. Mucosal leishmaniasis history of therapeutic failure presented high levels of BAFF accompanied by detectable concentrations of IFN-γ and IL-6 (assayed by commercial ELISA and cytometric bead arrays respectively), cytokines involved in exaggerated inflammatory responses and tissue damage in TL. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate B-cell disturbances in TL with the degree of the alterations related to clinical severity. We suggest a relation between excess of BAFF and disease activity and point towards a possible implication of BAFF in the inflammatory phenomenon of ML.

Impaired frequencies and function of platelets and tissue remodeling in chronic Chagas disease.

Chronic inflammation, as a consequence of the persistent infection with Trypanosoma cruzi, leads to continuous activation of the immune system in patients with chronic Chagas disease. We have previously shown that increased sera levels of soluble P-selectin are associated with the severity of the cardiomyopathy distinctive of chronic Chagas disease. In this study, we explored the expression of biomarkers of platelet and endothelial activation, tissue remodeling, and mediators of the coagulation cascade in patients at different clinical stages of chronic Chagas heart disease. The frequencies of activated platelets, measured by the expression of CD41a and CD62P were decreased in patients with chronic Chagas disease compared with those in uninfected subjects, with an inverse association with disease severity. Platelet activation in response to adenosine diphosphate was also decreased in T. cruzi-infected subjects. A major proportion of T. cruzi infected subjects showed increased serum levels of fibrinogen. Patients with severe cardiac dysfunction showed increased levels of endothelin-1 and normal values of procollagen I. In conclusion, chronic infection with T. cruzi induced hemostatic alterations, even in those patients who do not yet present cardiac symptoms.

Trypanosoma cruzi Infection at the Maternal-Fetal Interface: Implications of Parasite Load in the Congenital Transmission and Challenges in the Diagnosis of Infected Newborns.

Trypanosoma cruzi is the protozoan unicellular parasite that causes Chagas disease. It can be transmitted from infected mothers to their babies via the connatal route, thus being able to perpetuate even in the absence of Triatomine insect vectors. Chagas disease was originally endemic in Central and South America, but migration of infected women of childbearing age has spread the T. cruzi congenital infection to non-endemic areas like North America, Europe, Japan, and Australia. Currently, 7 million people are affected by this infection worldwide. This review focuses on the relevance of the T. cruzi parasite levels in different aspects of the congenital T. cruzi infection such as the mother-to-child transmission rate, the maternal and fetal immune response, and its impact on the diagnosis of infected newborns. Improvements in detection of this parasite, with tools that can be easily adapted to be used in remote rural areas, will make the early diagnosis of infected children possible, allowing a prompt trypanocidal treatment and avoiding the current loss of opportunities for the diagnosis of 100% of T. cruzi congenitally infected infants.

Correction: Trypanosoma cruzi-specific IFN-γ-producing cells in chronic Chagas disease associate with a functional IL-7/IL-7R axis.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006998.].

Trypanosoma cruzi-specific IFN-γ-producing cells in chronic Chagas disease associate with a functional IL-7/IL-7R axis.

BACKGROUND: The severity of cardiac disease in chronic Chagas disease patients is associated with different features of T-cell exhaustion. Here, we assessed whether the ability of T cells to secrete IFN-γ in response to T. cruzi was linked to disruption in immune homeostasis and inflammation in patients with chronic Chagas disease. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: PBMCs from chronic Chagas disease patients and uninfected controls were examined for frequencies of T. cruzi-responsive IFN-γ-producing cells by ELISPOT and cellular expression and function of IL-7R using flow cytometry. Serum levels of IL-7, IL-21, IL-27, soluble IL-7R, and inflammatory cytokines were also evaluated by ELISA or CBA techniques. Patients possessing T. cruzi-specific IFN-γ-producing cells (i.e. IFN-γ producers) had higher levels of memory T cells capable of modulating the alpha chain of IL-7R and an efficient response to IL-7 compared to that in patients lacking (i.e. IFN-γ nonproducers) parasite-specific T-cell responses. IFN-γ producers also showed low levels of soluble IL-7R, high basal expression of Bcl-2 in T cells and low basal frequencies of activated CD25+ T cells. Modulation of IL-7R was inversely associated with serum IL-6 levels and positively associated with serum IL-8 levels. Circulating IL-21 and IL-27 levels were not associated with the frequency of IFN-γ producing cells but were reduced in less severe clinical forms of the disease. In vitro stimulation of PBMCs with IL-7 or IL-27 enhanced IFN-γ production in IFN-γ producers but not in IFN-γ nonproducers. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Alterations of the IL-7/IL-7R axis and in the levels of inflammatory cytokines were linked to impaired T. cruzi-specific IFN-γ production. These alterations might be responsible of the process of immune exhaustion observed in chronic Chagas disease.

Distinct monocyte subset phenotypes in patients with different clinical forms of chronic Chagas disease and seronegative dilated cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Chronic infection with Trypanosoma cruzi leads to a constant stimulation of the host immune system. Monocytes, which are recruited in response to inflammatory signals, are divided into classical CD14hiCD16-, non-classical CD14loCD16+ and intermediate CD14hiCD16+ subsets. In this study, we evaluated the frequencies of monocyte subsets in the different clinical stages of chronic Chagas disease in comparison with the monocyte profile of seronegative heart failure subjects and seronegative healthy controls. The effect of the anti-parasite drug therapy benznidazole on monocyte subsets was also explored. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The frequencies of the different monocyte subsets and their phenotypes were measured by flow cytometry. Trypanosoma cruzi-specific antibodies were quantified by conventional serological tests. T. cruzi-infected subjects with mild or no signs of cardiac disease and patients suffering from dilated cardiomyopathy unrelated to T. cruzi infection showed increased levels of non-classical CD14loCD16+ monocytes compared with healthy controls. In contrast, the monocyte profile in T. cruzi-infected subjects with severe cardiomyopathy was skewed towards the classical and intermediate subsets. After benznidazole treatment, non-classical monocytes CD14loCD16+ decreased while classical monocytes CD14hiCD16-increased. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The different clinical stages of chronic Chagas disease display distinct monocyte profiles that are restored after anti-parasite drug therapy. T. cruzi-infected subjects with severe cardiac disease displayed a profile of monocytes subsets suggestive of a more pronounced inflammatory environment compared with subjects suffering from heart failure not related to T. cruzi infection, supporting that parasite persistence might also alter cell components of the innate immune system.

Distinct Treatment Outcomes of Antiparasitic Therapy in Trypanosoma cruzi-Infected Children Is Associated With Early Changes in Cytokines, Chemokines, and T-Cell Phenotypes.

Background: In contrast to adults, Trypanosoma cruzi-infected children have more broadly functional Trypanosoma cruzi-specific T cells, and the total T-cell compartment exhibits fewer signs of immune exhaustion. However, not much is known about the link between immunocompetence and the treatment efficacy for human Chagas disease. Methods: Using cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISPOT) polychromatic flow cytometry, cytometric bead assay, multiplex serological assays and quantitative PCR, we evaluated T. cruzi-specific T-cell and antibody immune responses, T-cell phenotypes and parasitemia in children in the early chronic phase of Chagas disease undergoing anti-Trypanosoma cruzi treatment. Results: Treatment with benznidazole or nifurtimox induced a decline in T. cruzi-specific IFN-γ- and IL-2-producing cells and proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. T-cell responses became detectable after therapy in children bearing T-cell responses under background levels prior to treatment. The total frequencies of effector, activated and antigen-experienced T cells also decreased following anti-T. cruzi therapy, along with an increase in T cells expressing the receptor of the homeostatic cytokine IL-7. Posttreatment changes in several of these markers distinguished children with a declining serologic response suggestive of successful treatment from those with sustained serological responses in a 5-year follow-up study. A multivariate analysis demonstrated that lower frequency of CD4+CD45RA-CCR7-CD62L- T cells prior to drug therapy was an independent indicator of successful treatment. Conclusions: These findings further validate the usefulness of alternative metrics to monitor treatment outcomes. Distinct qualitative and quantitative characteristics of T cells prior to drug therapy may be linked to treatment efficacy.

The Significance of Discordant Serology in Chagas Disease: Enhanced T-Cell Immunity to Trypanosoma cruzi in Serodiscordant Subjects.

BACKGROUND: Subjects are considered infected with Trypanosoma cruzi when tested positive by at least two out of three serological tests, whereas a positive result in only one of up to three tests is termed "serodiscordant" (SD). Assessment of parasite-specific T-cell responses may help discriminate the uninfected from infected individuals among SD subjects. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from SD and seropositive (SP) subjects, who were born in areas endemic for T. cruzi infection but living in Buenos Aires city, Argentina, at the time of the study, and seronegative unexposed subjects were included for analysis. The function and phenotype of T cells were assessed by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin (IL)-2 enzyme-linked immunospot assay and multiparameter flow cytometry. T. cruzi-specific antibodies were quantified by conventional serology and a multiplex assay format. RESULTS: SD subjects exhibited immunity cell responses to T. cruzi but in contrast to SP subjects, T cells in SD subjects more often display the simultaneous production of IFN-γ and IL-2 in response to T. cruzi antigens and have a resting phenotype. SD individuals also have higher IFN-γ spot counts, polyfunctional CD4+ T-cells enriched in IL-2 secreting cells and low levels of antibodies specific for a set of T. cruzi-derived recombinant proteins compared with the SP group. Long-term follow-up of SD individuals confirmed that humoral and T-cell responses fluctuate but are sustained over time in these subjects. T cells in SD subjects for T. cruzi infection did not recognize Leishmania antigens. CONCLUSION: Both T-cell and humoral responses in most subjects assessed by conventional tests as SD for T. cruzi infection indicate prior exposure to infection and the establishment of immunological memory suggestive of a resolved infection.

Serum Cytokines as Biomarkers of Early Trypanosoma cruzi infection by Congenital Exposure.

Trypanosoma cruzi, the causing agent of Chagas disease, leads to an activation of the immune system in congenitally infected infants. In this study, we measured a set of cytokines/chemokines and the levels of parasitemia by quantitative PCR in the circulation of neonates born to T. cruzi-infected mothers to evaluate the predictive value of these mediators as biomarkers of congenital transmission. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 35 infants with congenital T. cruzi infection, of which 15 and 10 infants had been diagnosed by detection of parasites by microscopy in the first and sixth month after delivery, respectively, and the remaining 10 had been diagnosed by the presence of T. cruzi-specific Abs at 10-12 mo old. Uninfected infants born to either T. cruzi-infected or uninfected mothers were also evaluated as controls. The plasma levels of IL-17A, MCP-1, and monokine induced by IFN-γ were increased in infants congenitally infected with T. cruzi, even before they developed detectable parasitemia or seroconversion. Infants diagnosed between 6 and 12 mo old also showed increased levels of IL-6 and IL-17F at 1 mo of age. Conversely, infants who did not develop congenital T. cruzi infection had higher levels of IFN-γ than infected infants born to uninfected mothers. Monokine induced by IFN-γ, MCP-1, and IFN-γ production induced in T. cruzi-infected infants correlated with parasitemia, whereas the plasma levels of IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-6 were less parasite load dependent. These findings support the existence of a distinct profile of cytokines and chemokines in the circulation of infants born to T. cruzi-infected mothers, which might predict congenital infection.

Treatment Success in Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Is Predicted by Early Changes in Serially Monitored Parasite-Specific T and B Cell Responses.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease is the highest impact parasitic disease in Latin America. We have proposed that changes in Trypanosoma cruzi-specific immune responses might serve as surrogate indicators of treatment success. Herein, we addressed in a long-term follow-up study whether cure achieved after treatment can be predicted by changes in non-conventional indexes of anti-parasite serological and T cell activities. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: T. cruzi-specific T cell responses, as measured by interferon-γ ELISPOT and T. cruzi-specific antibodies assessed by ELISA, hemagglutination and immunofluorescence tests as well as by a multiplex assay incorporating 14 recombinant T. cruzi proteins were measured in 33 patients at 48-150 months post-benznidazole treatment. Cure - as assessed by conventional serological tests - was associated with an early decline in T. cruzi-specific IFN-γ-producing T cells and in antibody titers measured by the multiplex serological assay. Changes in the functional status and potential of T. cruzi-specific T cells, indicative of reduced antigen stimulation, provided further evidence of parasitological cure following benznidazole treatment. Patients showing a significant reduction in T. cruzi-specific antibodies had higher pre-therapy levels of T. cruzi-specific IFN-γ- producing T cells compared to those with unaltered humoral responses post-treatment. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Monitoring of appropriate immunological responses can provide earlier and robust measures of treatment success in T. cruzi infection.

Perturbed T cell IL-7 receptor signaling in chronic Chagas disease.

We have previously demonstrated that immune responses in subjects with chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection display features common to other persistent infections with signs of T cell exhaustion. Alterations in cytokine receptor signal transduction have emerged as one of the cell-intrinsic mechanisms of T cell exhaustion. In this study, we performed an analysis of the expression of IL-7R components (CD127 and CD132) on CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and evaluated IL-7-dependent signaling events in patients at different clinical stages of chronic chagasic heart disease. Subjects with no signs of cardiac disease showed a decrease in CD127(+)CD132(+) cells and a reciprocal gain of CD127(-)CD132(+) in CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells compared with either patients exhibiting heart enlargement or uninfected controls. T. cruzi infection, in vitro, was able to stimulate the downregulation of CD127 and the upregulation of CD132 on T cells. IL-7-induced phosphorylation of STAT5 as well as Bcl-2 and CD25 expression were lower in T. cruzi-infected subjects compared with uninfected controls. The serum levels of IL-7 were also increased in chronic chagasic patients. The present study highlights perturbed IL-7/IL-7R T cell signaling through STAT5 as a potential mechanism of T cell exhaustion in chronic T. cruzi infection.

Presence of antigen-experienced T cells with low grade of differentiation and proliferative potential in chronic Chagas disease myocarditis.

BACKGROUND: The main consequence of chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection is the development of myocarditis in approximately 20-30% of infected individuals but not until 10-20 years after the initial infection. We have previously shown that circulating interferon-γ-secreting T cells responsive to Trypanosoma cruzi antigens in chronic Chagas disease patients display a low grade of differentiation and the frequency of these T lymphocytes decreases along with the severity of heart disease. This study thought to explore the expression of inhibitory receptors, transcription factors of type 1 or regulatory T cells, and markers of T cell differentiation, immunosenescence or active cell cycle in cardiac explants from patients with advanced Chagas disease myocarditis. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The expression of different markers for T and B cells as well as for macrophages was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence techniques in cardiac explants from patients with advanced chronic Chagas disease submitted to heart transplantation. Most infiltrating cells displayed markers of antigen-experienced T cells (CD3(+), CD4(+), CD8(+), CD45RO(+)) with a low grade of differentiation (CD27(+), CD57(-), CD45RA(-), PD(-)1(-)). A skewed T helper1/T cytotoxic 1 profile was supported by the expression of T-bet; whereas FOXP3(+) cells were scarce and located only in areas of severe myocarditis. In addition, a significant proliferative capacity of CD3(+) T cells, assessed by Ki67 staining, was found. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The quality of T cell responses and immunoregulatory mechanisms might determine the pattern of the cellular response and the severity of disease in chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection.

Polyfunctional T cell responses in children in early stages of chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection contrast with monofunctional responses of long-term infected adults.

BACKGROUND: Adults with chronic Trypanosoma cruzi exhibit a poorly functional T cell compartment, characterized by monofunctional (IFN-γ-only secreting) parasite-specific T cells and increased levels of terminally differentiated T cells. It is possible that persistent infection and/or sustained exposure to parasites antigens may lead to a progressive loss of function of the immune T cells. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To test this hypothesis, the quality and magnitude of T. cruzi-specific T cell responses were evaluated in T. cruzi-infected children and compared with long-term T. cruzi-infected adults with no evidence of heart failure. The phenotype of CD4(+) T cells was also assessed in T. cruzi-infected children and uninfected controls. Simultaneous secretion of IFN-γ and IL-2 measured by ELISPOT assays in response to T. cruzi antigens was prevalent among T. cruzi-infected children. Flow cytometric analysis of co-expression profiles of CD4(+) T cells with the ability to produce IFN-γ, TNF-α, or to express the co-stimulatory molecule CD154 in response to T. cruzi showed polyfunctional T cell responses in most T. cruzi-infected children. Monofunctional T cell responses and an absence of CD4(+)TNF-α(+)-secreting T cells were observed in T. cruzi-infected adults. A relatively high degree of activation and differentiation of CD4(+) T cells was evident in T. cruzi-infected children. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our observations are compatible with our initial hypothesis that persistent T. cruzi infection promotes eventual exhaustion of immune system, which might contribute to disease progression in long-term infected subjects.

Combined treatment with benznidazole and allopurinol in mice infected with a virulent Trypanosoma cruzi isolate from Nicaragua.

We evaluated the effect of chemotherapy with a sequential combined treatment of a low dose of benznidazole and allopurinol, in different schedules of administration, in experimental models of acute and chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Mice were infected with Nicaragua T. cruzi isolate, a virulent parasite from an endemic area of Nicaragua, genotyped as TcI (Grosso et al. 2010). We assessed survival rate, IgG levels, histopathological studies and quantified parasitaemia. A 15% survival rate was recorded in untreated mice during the acute phase of T. cruzi infection. Allopurinol administered immediately after benznidazole treatment was able to reduce parasitaemia and attenuate tissue damage by reducing inflammation. Trypanosoma cruzi-specific antibodies also decreased in 40-50% of the treated mice. The addition of allopurinol during the chronic phase showed the highest beneficial effect, not only by reducing parasitaemia but also by lowering the degree of inflammation and fibrosis.

Allopurinol reduces antigen-specific and polyclonal activation of human T cells.

Allopurinol is the most popular commercially available xanthine oxidase inhibitor and it is widely used for treatment of symptomatic hyperuricaemia, or gout. Although, several anti-inflammatory actions of allopurinol have been demonstrated in vivo and in vitro, there have been few studies on the action of allopurinol on T cells. In the current study, we have assessed the effect of allopurinol on antigen-specific and mitogen-driven activation and cytokine production in human T cells. Allopurinol markedly decreased the frequency of IFN-γ and IL-2-producing T cells, either after polyclonal or antigen-specific stimulation with Herpes Simplex virus 1, Influenza (Flu) virus, tetanus toxoid and Trypanosoma cruzi-derived antigens. Allopurinol attenuated CD69 upregulation after CD3 and CD28 engagement and significantly reduced the levels of spontaneous and mitogen-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species in T cells. The diminished T cell activation and cytokine production in the presence of allopurinol support a direct action of allopurinol on human T cells, offering a potential pharmacological tool for the management of cell-mediated inflammatory diseases.