[Information in perinatal medicine: ethical aspects]. / L'information dans le contexte du soin périnatal: aspects éthiques.

Besides the undeniable need to respect parental autonomy, providing information is a legal and moral obligation, to be informed a basic right. The act of informing should be considered as an exchange and necessarily begins by listening to the other. According to the jurisprudence of the Court of Cassation that draws on Article 35 of the Deontological Code, information has to be clear (implying an educational effort, availability and to check that the information has been well understood), appropriate (adapted to each situation and person) and honest (which supposes a moral contract between parents and physicians). Loyalty implies a consideration of the uncertainty underlying medical practice, and of the limitations in arriving at a prognosis. Indeed, caution needs to be exercised in conveying information, taking into account the risk of its becoming self-fulfilling, which could modify the way in which parents take care of their child. The information given has to be coherent, both within the spatial dimension (coherence of information between the different maternity services in the perinatal network) and the temporal dimension (coherence of information between pre- and postnatal stages). It must be acknowledged that information is essentially subjective. There is a fundamental difference between coherence and uniformity, and as regards information, uniformity is neither possible nor desirable. In each situation, priority must be given to oral information delivered in an appropriate material context. The principle of establishing, in the medical file, a written trace of the information given at various stages is one way to guarantee its coherence.

Dynamic behavior of respiratory system during nasal continuous positive airway pressure in spontaneously breathing premature newborn infants.

The end-expiratory lung-volume level of premature newborn infants is maintained above passive resting volume during active breathing, through the combination of reduced time constant and high respiratory rate. To determine whether nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) alters this characteristic dynamic breathing pattern, we studied the effects of various NCPAP levels on the dynamic elevation of end-expiratory lung volume level (DeltaEELV) in spontaneously breathing premature newborn infants, using respiratory inductive plethysmography (RIP). Eleven premature newborn infants with moderate respiratory failure were included. NCPAP levels were set in a random order to 0, 2, 4, and 6 cm H2O. Tidal volume (Vt), rib-cage contribution to Vt (%RC), phase angle between abdominal and thoracic motions (theta), respiratory rate (RR), and inspiratory and expiratory times (Ti and Te) were continuously recorded by RIP. The slope of the linear part of the expiratory flow-volume relation was extrapolated up to zero flow level to evaluate the dynamic elevation of the functional residual capacity (FRC) (DeltaEELV). The time-constant of the respiratory system (tauRS) was calculated as the slope of the linear part of the expiratory flow-volume loop. At NCPAP = 6 cm H2O, DeltaEELV reached 0.6 +/- 0.2 times the Vt at NCPAP = 0 cm H2O. An increase in NCPAP level resulted in a significant decrease in DeltaEELV (P < 0.01). A decrease in DeltaEELV during NCPAP was associated with a significant increase in Te from 0.62 +/- 0.13 sec at NCPAP = 0 cm H2O to 0.80 +/- 0.07 sec at NCPAP = 6 cm H2O (P < 0.05), and a decrease in tauRS from 0.4 +/- 0.1 sec at NCPAP = 0 cm H2O to 0.24 +/- 0.04 sec at NCPAP = 6 cm H2O (P < 0.01). These results indicate that the characteristic spontaneous breathing pattern causing a dynamic elevation of FRC is abolished by NCPAP. We speculate that the dynamic volume-preserving mechanisms resulting from expiratory flow braking are no longer required during NCPAP, as the constant pressure may passively elevate FRC.

[Assessment by a national survey of needs for NICU and intermediate NICU in France]. / Evaluation nationale des besoins en lits de réanimation et soins intensifs néonatals.

UNLABELLED: The setting up of the so-called "decrees on perinatal safety" on October 1998 has been associated with many difficulties which were apparently related to the lack of beds for intensive care units, special care units and neonatal medicine. This led to a national survey. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the survey was : (1) to collect the number of neonates requiring hospitalization in NICU and special care units over a 1-week period in metropolitan France and overseas departments and territories; (2) to assess the needs in equipments and care-givers. METHODS: The writs to be included in the survey were previously identified. Each day of hospitalization was classified as needing an intensive care unit, a special care unit or a neonatal unit. Then it was classified as well fitted or badly fitted. RESULTS: Two hundred and forty units (90% of the French units) from 204 hospitals participated in the survey and 3678 neonates were included and accumulated 17 583 days of hospitalization (NICU: 2728; special care: 5047; neonatal medicine: 9808). One thousand and five hundred and ninety hospitalization days did not fit well either with the technical level required by the neonate or/and with the location of the parents' home (9.2%): 23.1% in overseas departments and territories; 12% in metropolitan France. The main reasons for maladjustment were: a too high technical level: (59%); an insufficient technical level: (21%) (19 neonates could not be admitted in a NICU as they needed). The survey included 158 NICU and special care units. Taking into consideration the French law: the lack in equipment was: 294 ventilators, 231 cardio-respiratory monitors, 116 pulse oxymeters and 513 blood pressure monitors; 561 additional pediatricians were needed to allow a medical night duties including seven doctors in each NICU and each special care unit; 1878 additional nurses were also needed. Making the assumption that the mean occupation rate of the neonatal beds should be 70%, the needs were calculated for 1000 live births: metropolitan France: 0.76 (0.74; 0.78) in NICU; 1.45 (1.43-1.47) in special care units; overseas departments and territories: 2 (1.8-2.5) in NICU; 3.5 (3.2-3.8) in special care units. CONCLUSION: Finally, the main deficit was not related to the number of beds but to the equipment and number of care-givers. The status of overseas departments and territories was particularly worrying.

Successful management of severe chylothorax with argon plasma fulguration and fibrin glue in a premature infant.

Post-traumatic neonatal chylothorax is a rare entity. Management includes medical and surgical treatment. We describe here a newborn who developed a severe chylothorax after repair of an oesophageal atresia. The chylothorax was treated successfully by a combination of argon beam coagulation of the mediastinum and fibrin glue application. However, the patient developed complete thrombosis of the left femoral vein with clot extension to the inferior vena cava which resolved after infusion of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA). The use of argon plasma coagulation and mediastinal fibrin glue application for treating postoperative chylothorax appears to be attractive and is easy to perform even in small premature infants and may replace a more extensive surgical procedure. However, the coagulation profile should be monitored and special care should be taken to prevent vascular thrombosis after surgery.

[Multicentric study on neonatal medical pain management in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais]. / Enquête multicentrique sur la prise en charge médicamenteuse de la douleur en néonatologie dans le Nord-Pas-de-Calais.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to describe pain management for newborn infants in neonatal intensive care units and neonatal units in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A questionnaire was distributed to the 52 physicians practising in the six neonatal intensive care units and six neonatal units. The questions were in reference to pain assessment, treatment and prevention. RESULTS: Forty questionnaires were completed (77%). Eleven units proclaimed an interest in neonatal pain management. The tool for assessing pain was the EDIN scale (Echelle Douleur Inconfort Nouveau-né, neonatal pain and discomfort scale). Analgesic treatment was administered in 100% of cases for the insertion of chest tube, in 92% of cases for the insertion of percutaneous central catheter in a ventilated newborn infant and in 91% of cases for necrotizing enterocolitis requiring a mechanical ventilation. Prescribed analgesic drugs were propacetamol, nalbuphin or fentanyl; a sedation by midazolam or diazepam was occasionally associated. Emla cream was used before lumbar puncture in 80% of cases in the neonatal intensive care units and in 92% of cases in the neonatal units. Three neonatal intensive care units and four neonatal units administered a sucrose solution for blood samples. CONCLUSION: At the time of study, the interest in the pain of the physicians working in neonatal intensive care units and neonatal units was inadequate to guarantee an optimum management of pain in newborn infants. Physicians' approach remained heterogeneous.

[Recombinant human erythropoietin: analysis of a policy of treatment in an hospital based population of very-low-birthweight infants]. / Erythropoïétine humaine recombinante: analyse d'une politique de prescription dans une population hospitalière de nouveau-nés de faible poids de naissance.

AIM OF THE STUDY: To evaluate a policy of treatment with human recombinant erythropoietin (rhEPO) and to describe factors related to red blood cell transfusions (RBCTs) in treated neonates. STUDY: Prospective, observative study. PATIENTS AND METHODS: One-hundred and sixty-five neonates with gestational age (GA) < 30 weeks and/or birthweight < 1000g admitted between may 1998 and october 1999. Ninety were excluded (congenital malformations n = 6, deaths n = 16, referral to a general hospital before discharge n = 67, ECMO n = 1). Data about the characteristics of the population, the severity of the neonatal period, hemoglobin at birth, blood loses, treatment with rhEPO, number of red blood cells transfusions (RBCTs) and donors were recorded in all infants. RESULTS: Thirty-eight in seventy-five (51%) neonates received 112 blood transfusions. Eighty-eight were prescribed after day 15. In most of the cases (n = 68), RBCTs were done according to the protocol. In 20 cases (23%) infants were transfused during a late-onset infection. No difference was observed between the non-transfused (group I) and the transfused neonates (group II) with regards to the drug administration: first dose on day 3 +/- 2, number of injections (17 +/- 4 vs 18 +/- 1, ns). The start of oral supplementation with iron was late (12j +/- 8 vs 19j +/- 10, ns). Infants in group II had a lower birthweight (850 +/- 240 vs 1050 +/- 160 g, p < 0,01) for a similar GA (28 +/- 1SA vs 28 +/- 2SA, ns) in association with an increased number of small for date babies (p = 0.03). Antenatal steroïds administration (89 vs 74%, ns), administration of surfactant (59 vs 81%, ns) were similar in the two groups. The Clinical Risk Index for Babies was higher in group II: 5 +/- 3 vs 2 +/- 1 (p < 0,001) as was the duration of oxygen delivery (53 +/- 44 vs 14 +/- 20 days, p < 0,01) and postnatal administration of corticosteroïds ( 38% vs 3%, p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: The quality of iron administration, RBCTs and the limitation of donors could be improved in our population. Transfusions among neonates born before 30 weeks and/or with a birthweight of less than 1000 g and treated with rhEPO are associated with intrauterine malnutrition and a worse clinical condition on admission. Early identification of at risk neonates could improve prevention of RBCTs and the efficacy of rhEPO administration to preterm infants.

Effects of catecholamines on the pulmonary circulation in the ovine fetus.

High levels of circulating catecholamines are found in the fetus, and fetal stress and birth induce a marked surge in catecholamine secretion. Little is known about the role of catecholamines on the fetal pulmonary circulation. To determine the effects of catecholamines on the pulmonary vascular tone, we tested the hemodynamic response to norepinephrine and dopamine infusion in chronically prepared late-gestation fetal lambs. We found that norepinephrine infusion (0.5 microg. kg(-1). min(-1)) increased pulmonary artery pressure (PAP) by 10 +/- 1% (P < 0.01), left pulmonary artery blood flow by 73 +/- 14% (P < 0.01), and decreased pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) by 33 +/- 6% (P < 0.01). The pulmonary vasodilator effect of norepinephrine was abolished after nitric oxide synthase inhibition. Dopamine infusion at 5 microg. kg(-1). min(-1) did not significantly change PVR. Conversely, dopamine infusion at 10 microg. kg(-1). min(-1) increased PAP (P < 0.01) and progressively increased PVR by 30 +/- 14% (P < 0.01). These results indicate that catecholamines may modulate basal pulmonary vascular tone in the ovine fetus. We speculate that catecholamines may play a significant role in the maintenance of the fetal pulmonary circulation and in mediating changes in the transitional pulmonary circulation.

[Experimental study of changes in FiO2 during manual ventilation]. / Etude expérimentale des facteurs de variation de la FiO2 lors de la ventilation manuelle.

UNLABELLED: Discrepancies exist in the recommendations about the oxygen flow to deliver during manual ventilation. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of ventilatory frequency (FR), inspiratory pressure (P) and oxygen flow on the concentration of the delivered oxygen (FiO2) to obtain FiO2 near 1. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Experimental study with self-inflating resuscitation bag (Ambu with oxygen reservoir) tested on a mono-compartmental test lung (resistant tube and elastic bag [Draeger]; characteristics: compliance = 0.6 mL/cmH2O; resistance = 85 cmH2O.L-1.s-1). Protocol 1: six neonatologists ventilated this model as if they were ventilating premature newborn infants with RDS at various ventilatory rates from 30 to 120 bpm and at various oxygen flows (from 2 to 12 L/min). Tidal volumes (Vt), inspiratory times (Ti), P and FiO2 were recorded continuously during the study. Protocol 2: a graduated manometer was added to visualize pressure. The same protocol was then applied. RESULTS: Protocol 1 (without visual control of the pressure): increase in oxygen flow delivered with the Ambu increases the FiO2 values (P < 0.0001); the higher the ventilatory frequency, the lower the FiO2 (P < 0.0001). The mean value of delivered FiO2 was related to the operator (extreme: 47-86%) (P < 0.001). Multivariate statistical analysis showed that O2 flow, ventilator rate and operator modulated independently the FiO2. Ti and Vt did not change the FiO2. Protocol 2 (with visual control of the pressure: the mean inflating pressures were less than those obtained without visual control of the pressure (26 vs 40 cmH2O respectively; P < 0.05). FiO2 was independent of O2 flow and ventilatory rate. CONCLUSIONS: A special device for continuous visual control of airway pressure is recommended during neonatal manual ventilation. It prevents ventilatory rate-induced FiO2 fluctuations and overdistention.

Effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) on breathing pattern in spontaneously breathing premature newborn infants.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess the influence of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) on breathing pattern in preterm newborns. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTING: Neonatal intensive care unit. PATIENTS: Ten premature newborn infants on NCPAP (gestational age range from 27 to 32 weeks, mean birth weight 1300+/-460 g) admitted in our neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) for respiratory distress syndrome. METHODS: Breathing patterns and changes in lung volumes level were obtained using respiratory inductive plethysmography (RIP), at random CPAP levels (0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 cmH2O). Raw data were analysed for end-expiratory lung volume level (EELV-level), tidal volume (Vt), respiratory rate, phase angle and labour breathing index (LBI). RESULTS: CPAP increased EELV-level by 2.1+/-0.3xVt from 0 to 8 cmH2O ( p<0.01). Vt increased by 43% from CPAP of 0 cmH2O to CPAP of 8 cmH2O ( p<0.01). We also found that CPAP lowered the phase angle (from 76+/-21 degrees at CPAP of 0 cmH2O to 30+/-15 degrees at CPAP of 8 cmH2O; p<0.01 ) and LBI (from 1.7+/-0.8 at CPAP of 0 cmH2O to 1.2+/-0.3 at CPAP of 8 cmH2O; p<0.05). CONCLUSION: NCPAP improves the breathing strategy of premature infants with respiratory failure, as reflected by improved thoraco-abdominal synchrony, increased Vt and reduction of the LBI. This effect is associated with an increase in EELV-level with CPAP level. However, further investigations are necessary to establish the best CPAP level that ensures both safety and efficiency.

Two years' follow-up of newborn infants after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).

OBJECTIVE: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a technique of extracorporeal oxygenation used in newborn infants with refractory hypoxemia after failure of maximal conventional medical management, when mortality risk is higher than 80%. We retrospectively reviewed all the neonates treated by ECMO between October 1991 and September 1997 in our newborn intensive care unit. METHODS: Fifty-seven patients were treated with ECMO for severe respiratory failure: congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) (n=23), neonatal sepsis (NS) (n=14), meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS) (n=12), and others (n=8). Mean gestational age and birth weight were 38+/-2 weeks and 3200+/-500 g, respectively. Oxygenation index was 61+/-8. Both venovenous (n=28) or venoarterial ECMO (n=29) were used. The mean time at ECMO initiation was 47 h (range 8 h-2 months). The mean duration was 134+/-68 h. In each case of VA ECMO, carotid reconstruction was performed. Survival at 2 years was 40/57 (70%) (CDH 12/23 (52%), NS 11/14 (79%), MAS 12/12 (100%), others 5/8). Follow-up at 2 years was available in 36 survivors. RESULTS: Neurodevelopmental outcome was not related to the initial diagnosis: normal neurologic development (n=30), cerebral palsy (n=5), and neurologic developmental delay (n=1). Two patients remained oxygen dependant at 2 years, and four required surgical treatment for severe gastroesophageal reflux. Respiratory and digestive sequelae were more frequent in the CDH group (P<0.01). Patency and flow of the repaired carotid artery was assessed in 20 infants at 1 year of age using Doppler ultrasonography: normal (n=10), <50% stenosis (n=9), and >50% stenosis (n=1). CONCLUSION: ECMO increased survival of newborn infants with refractory hypoxemia. However, higher a survival rate and lower morbidity were found in non-CDH infants than in congenital diaphragmatic hernia.

Effects of inhaled nitric oxide on gas exchange and acute lung injury in premature lambs with moderate hyaline membrane disease.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine whether inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) may change lung injury in moderate hyaline membrane disease (HMD). METHODS: Fifteen moderately premature lambs (128 days gestation, term=147 days) were randomly assigned to treatment with 20 ppm inhaled NO (n=7) from the onset of ventilation or control (n=8). Except for inhaled NO, treatments were intentionally similar to those applied in clinical situations. After porcine surfactant administration (Curosurf, 100 mg/kg), mechanical ventilator settings were modified during the course of the study to maintain PaCO(2) between 40 and 50 mmHg and post-ductal SpO(2) between 90 and 95%. The main studied parameters were gas exchanges parameters, respiratory mechanics (static compliance and functional residual capacity) and pulmonary vascular permeability and/or filtration rate indices. RESULTS: We found that 20 ppm of inhaled NO for 5 h significantly reduce ventilatory and oxygen requirements, but only during the first hour of mechanical ventilation. No increase in extravascular lung water content (5.41+/-0.96 vs. 5.46+/-1.09 ml/g bloodless dry lung in the control group and in the NO group, respectively) and no impairment of the respiratory mechanics could be found in the NO-treated group. However, inhaled NO increased the albumin lung leak index in this model (6.09+/-1.51 in the NO-treated group vs. 4.08+/-1.93 in the control group; P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our results do not therefore support a detrimental effect of short-term exposure to low doses of NO inhalation in moderate HMD. However, it may induce an increase in lung vascular protein leakage. The pathophysiological consequences of this finding remain to be elucidated.

[Co-sleeping and sudden infant death syndrome]. / Cosleeping et mort subite du nourrisson.

Bedsharing has recently become a controversial subject. Some authors, mainly from North America, assign to bedsharing a positive effect on the efficacy and duration of breast-feeding. Moreover, it would protect against sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Conversely, other studies consider bedsharing as an additional risk factor for SIDS. From the literature data, there is some evidence for an increased risk of SIDS when bedsharing is associated with maternal smoking and alcohol consumption. Bedsharing cannot be recommended as an absolutely safe practice. Breast-feeding mothers should be aware of these potential hazards.

[Non-medical factors in perinatal health. A study of socioeconomic anc cultural features of women admitted to the maternity hospital in Lens (Pas-de-Calais)]. / Rôle des facteurs non médicaux dans la santé périnatale. Etude des caractéristiques socioéconomiques et culturelles de la population accueillie à la maternité du centre hospitalier de Lens (Pas-de-Calais).

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the influence of medical and non-medical factors on perinatal health in an underpriviledged area, the ex-coal mines of Lens (Pas-de-Calais). POPULATION AND METHODS: This prospective study concerned 1,000 women who delivered in the maternity hospital of Lens between January 5, 1993 and May 13, 1993. The relationships between preterm delivery, low birth weight and maternal socioeconomic and cultural characteristics were analyzed. RESULTS: The women included presented adverse pregnancy outcomes. Preterm delivery, low birth weight and neonatal transfer rates were respectively 6.9%, 7.3% and 12.7% higher than the average regional rates. In contrast with these results, antenatal care could be considered correct or even better. The poor socioeconomic status of the population appeared to be a very significant perinatal risk factor. CONCLUSION: At present, in an unfavourable regional conjuncture, socioeconomic and cultural factors have adverse effects on perinatal morbidity and mortality independent of medical factors like prenatal care. The prevention of poor perinatal outcome should be based on these data. Not the access to the health care system but the manner of dispensing health care should require great consideration.

Combined effects of inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) and oxidant agents on the production of methemoglobinemia in newborn piglets.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of the association of inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) and oxidant drugs (acetaminophen, phytomenadione, and EMLA cream) on methemoglobinemia during the neonatal period. DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, experimental study. SETTING: University Experimental Pharmacology laboratory. SUBJECTS: Sixty newborn piglets weighing 1.5-2.0 Kg. INTERVENTIONS: Twelve groups of five piglets were anaesthetized, mechanically ventilated, and studied for 3 hrs. Eight groups received iNO (40 ppm or 80 ppm) alone or in association with a single intravenous dose of acetaminophen (120 mg/kg propacetamol), phytomenadione (5 mg vitamin K1) or EMLA cream (2.5 g) applied to the ventral lower abdomen for 3 hrs. Three other groups received, respectively, acetaminophen, phytomenadione, or EMLA cream without iNO. The last group (control group) received neither drugs nor iNO. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Methemoglobinemia was measured before the beginning of each experiment, 30 mins later, and every hour for 3 hrs. There was no significant difference in methemoglobinemia at any time between groups receiving acetaminophen (0.90%+/-0.12%), phytomenadione (0.88%+/-0.11%), or EMLA cream alone (0.97%+/-0.11%) and the control group (0.92%+/-0.12%). At 3 hrs, methemoglobinemia was slightly but significantly increased in group receiving iNO alone (1.04%+/-0.17% at 40 ppm iNO and 1.14%+/-0.16% at 80 ppm iNO; p < .05). Conversely, methemoglobinemia increased as a function of time in groups in which iNO was associated to drug administration and was significantly greater than the control group at 3 hrs (80 ppm iNO + acetaminophen, 2.80%+/-0.47%; 80 ppm iNO + phytomenadione, 2.38%+/-0.45%; 80 ppm iNO + EMLA cream, 2.33%+/-046%; p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that if oxidant drugs (acetaminophen, phytomenadione, or EMLA cream) did not increase blood methemoglobinemia in neonatal piglets, their association with iNO caused an increase in methemoglobin. Special care should be taken to monitor methemoglobinemia when iNO is combined to such drugs in newborn infants.