Clinical Epidemiology of Extracranial Injuries in Severe Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury in South America.

BACKGROUND: Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of pediatric mortality, with a disproportionate burden on low- and middle-income countries. The impact of concomitant extracranial injury (ECI) on these patients remains unclear. This study is the first to characterize the epidemiology and clinical course of severe pediatric TBI with extracranial injuries in any South American country. METHODS: We conducted a secondary analysis of baseline data collected prior to implementation of a clinical trial on TBI care in Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile from September 2019 to July 2020. Patients ≤18 years with CT evidence of TBI, and a Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score ≤8 were recruited. Patients were initially stratified by highest non-head abbreviated injury scale (AIS): isolated TBI (AIS=0), minor extracranial injury (MEI; AIS=1-2), and serious extracranial injury (SEI; AIS≥3). Patients were subsequently stratified by mechanism of injury. Intergroup differences were compared using ANOVA, two-tailed unpaired t-tests, and chi-square tests. RESULTS: Among the 116 children included, 33 % (n = 38) had an isolated TBI, 34 % (n = 39) had MEI, and 34 % (n = 39) had SEI. Facial (n = 53), thoracic (n = 44), and abdominal (n = 31) injuries were the most common ECIs. At discharge, there were no significant differences in median GCS, GOS, or GOS-extended between groups. Patients with SEI had a longer hospital LOS than those with isolated TBI (median 28.0 (IQR 10.6-40.1) vs 11.9 (IQR 8.7-20.7) days, p = 0.013). The most common mechanisms of injury were road traffic injuries (RTIs) (n = 50, 43 %) and falls (n = 35, 30 %). Patients with RTI-associated TBIs were more likely to be older (median 11.0 (IQR 3.0-14.0) vs 2.0 (IQR 0.8-7.0) years, p<0.001) and more likely to have an ECI (86% vs 54 %, respectively; p = 0.003). ICU and Hospital LOS for RTI patients (median 10.5 (IQR 6.1-21.1) and 24.1 (IQR 11.5-40.4) days) were longer than those of fall patients (median 6.1 (IQR 2.6-8.9) and 13.7 (IQR 7.7-24.5) days). CONCLUSIONS: Extracranial injuries are common in South American patients with severe TBI. Severe ECI is more frequently associated with RTIs and can result in a higher rate of surgical procedures and LOS. Further strategies are needed to characterize the prevention and treatment of severe pediatric TBI in the South American context.

Standardization of Trauma, General Surgical Morbidity and Mortality Conferences: Development and Dissemination of a "Toolkit" in Peru.

BACKGROUND: Morbidity and Mortality (M&M) conferences allow clinicians to review adverse events and identify areas for improvement. There are few reports of structured M&M conferences in low- and middle-income countries and no report of collaborative efforts to standardize them. METHODS: The present study aims to gather general surgeons representing most of Peru's urban surgical care and, in collaboration, with trauma quality improvement experts develop a M&M conferences toolkit with the expectation that its diffusion impacts their reported clinical practice. Fourteen general surgeons developed a toolkit as part of a working group under the auspices of the Peruvian General Surgery Society. After three years, we conducted an anonymous written questionnaire to follow-up previous observations of quality improvement practices. RESULTS: A four-component toolkit was developed: Toolkit component #1: Conference logistics and case selection; Toolkit component #2: Documenting form; Toolkit component #3: Presentation template; and Toolkit component #4: Code of conduct. The toolkit was disseminated to 10 hospitals in 2016. Its effectiveness was evaluated by comparing the results of surveys on quality improvement practices conducted in 2016, before toolkit dissemination (101 respondents) and 2019 (105 respondents). Lower attendance was reported by surgeons in 2019. However, in 2019, participants more frequently described "improve the system" as the perceived objective of M&M conferences (70.5% vs. 38.6% in 2016; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: We established a toolkit for the national dissemination of a standardized M&M conference. Three years following the initial assessment in Peru, we found similar practice patterns except for increased reporting of "system improvement" as the goal of M&M conferences.

The Pediatric Guideline Adherence and Outcomes (PEGASUS Argentina) program in severe traumatic brain injury: study protocol adaptations during the COVID-19 pandemic for a multisite implementation-effectiveness cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this protocol is to describe the study protocol changes made and subsequently implemented to the Pediatric Guideline Adherence and Outcomes (PEGASUS) Argentina randomized controlled trial (RCT) for care of children with severe traumatic brain injuries (TBI) imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The PEGASUS study group met in spring 2020 to evaluate available literature review guidance and the study design change or pausing options due to the potential interruption of research. METHODS: As a parallel cluster RCT, pediatric patients with severe TBIs are admitted to 8 control (usual care) and 8 intervention (PEGASUS program) hospitals in Argentina, Chile, and Paraguay. PEGASUS is an intervention that aims to increase guideline adherence and best practice care for improving patient outcomes using multi-level implementation science-based approaches. Strengths and weaknesses of proposed options were assessed and resulted in a decision to revert from a stepped wedge to a parallel cluster RCT but to not delay planned implementation. DISCUSSION: The parallel cluster design was considered more robust and flexible to secular interruptions and acceptable and feasible to the local study sites in this situation. Due to the early stage of the study, the team had flexibility to redesign and implement a design more compatible with the conditions of the research landscape in 2020 while balancing analytical methods and power, logistical and implementation feasibility, and acceptability. As of fall 2022, the PEGASUS RCT has been active for nearly 2 years of implementation and data collection, scheduled to be completed in in fall 2023. The experience of navigating research during this period will influence decisions about future research design, strategies, and contingencies. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Pediatric Guideline Adherence and Outcomes-Argentina. Registered with ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT03896789 on April 1, 2019.

The Status of Quality Improvement Programs for Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Care in Argentina.

INTRODUCTION: Trauma quality improvement (QI) programs improve care and outcomes for injured patients. Information about QI programs for pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) is sparse in Latin America. METHODS: We gathered data on the status of QI programs and activities that encompass pediatric TBI at 15 Argentine hospitals. Data were gathered during 2019 and included hospital characteristics, QI practices, presence of a queryable registry, and use of protocols for TBI care. Level of QI activities was compared between hospital types using Fisher's exact test. RESULTS: Most hospitals had guidelines for pediatric TBI care, including management and/or prevention of intracranial pressure (100%) and central-line-associated infections (87%). Morbidity and mortality meetings or other types of case discussions in which quality of pediatric TBI care was discussed were held by all hospitals, with most (53%) having weekly-monthly meetings, but 27% having rare or annual meetings. Sixty percent of hospitals had adequate data for case reviews (fewer than 25% of cases with essential information missing). Fifty-three percent documented discussions that occurred at these meetings and 53% utilized computerized trauma registries. Larger hospitals (> 200 beds) more frequently had adequate data (88%) for case reviews than smaller hospitals (29%, P = 0.046). Hospital size did not affect other QI activities. CONCLUSIONS: Most hospitals had guidelines for pediatric TBI care. Adequacy of care was discussed at reasonably frequent case conferences. Opportunities for improvement include increasing documentation of case reviews and improving adequacy of data for case reviews, especially at smaller hospitals. Greater use of computerized trauma registries could provide such data.

Assessment of Rehabilitation Infrastructure in Peru.

OBJECTIVE: To assess rehabilitation infrastructure in Peru in terms of the World Health Organization (WHO) health systems building blocks. DESIGN: Anonymous quantitative survey; questions were based on the WHO's Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care and rehabilitation professionals' input. SETTING: Large public hospitals and referral centers and an online survey platform. PARTICIPANTS: Convenience sample of hospital personnel working in rehabilitation and neurology (N=239), recruited through existing contacts and professional societies. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Outcome measures were for 4 WHO domains: health workforce, health service delivery, essential medical products and technologies, and health information systems. RESULTS: Regarding the domain of health workforce, 47% of physical therapists, 50% of occupational therapists, and 22% of physiatrists never see inpatients. Few reported rehabilitative nurses (15%) or prosthetist/orthotists (14%) at their hospitals. Even at the largest hospitals, most reported ≤3 occupational therapists (54%) and speech-language pathologists (70%). At hospitals without speech-language pathologists, physical therapists (49%) or nobody (34%) perform speech-language pathology roles. At hospitals without occupational therapists, physical therapists most commonly (59%) perform occupational therapy tasks. Alternate prosthetist/orthotist task performers are occupational therapists (26%), physical therapists (19%), and physicians (16%). Forty-four percent reported interdisciplinary collaboration. Regarding the domain of health services, the most frequent inpatient and outpatient rehabilitation barriers were referral delays (50%) and distance/transportation (39%), respectively. Regarding the domain of health information systems, 28% reported rehabilitation service data collection. Regarding the domain of essential medical products and technologies, electrophysical agents (88%), gyms (81%), and electromyography (76%) were most common; thickened liquids (19%), swallow studies (24%), and cognitive training tools (28%) were least frequent. CONCLUSIONS: Rehabilitation emphasis is on outpatient services, and there are comparatively adequate numbers of physical therapists and physiatrists relative to rehabilitation personnel. Financial barriers seem low for accessing existing services. There appear to be shortages of inpatient rehabilitation, specialized services, and interdisciplinary collaboration. These may be addressed by redistributing personnel and investing in education and equipment for specialized services. Further examination of task sharing's role in Peru's rehabilitation services is necessary to evaluate its potential to address deficiencies.

A Global Assessment of Access to and Use of Medical Information: The State of Evidence-Based Surgery.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to assess surgeons' access to and use of medical information, as well as their training and perceptions about evidence-based medicine (EBM), in order to identify priority areas for improvement. STUDY DESIGN: An anonymous survey conducted among surgeons from the USA, Ghana, Peru, and Thailand examined access to, and use and perception of, medical literature. RESULTS: Of 307 participants, 98% reported access to "OK" or "good" internet. Fifty-one percent reported that language was a barrier to accessing needed medical information; most frequently in Peru (73%) and Thailand (64%). Access to priced full-text journals was poorest in Peru, where 54% lacked access, followed by Ghana (42%) and Thailand (32%). US respondents scored highest on the EBM knowledge test (1.4, SD 0.8), followed by Thailand (1.3, SD 0.9), Ghana (1.1, SD 0.8), and Peru (0.9, SD 0.8) (p < 0.001). Adjusted analysis revealed Ghanaians and Peruvians spent 5% and 1% more on medical information, respectively, relative to country income, than persons from other countries (p < 0.01). After adjustment, employment in a large and/or urban hospital and history of EBM training were associated with better EBM test scores, while middle-income origin and public hospital employment were associated with worse scores (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Language, access to priced full-text journals, and training are significant barriers to surgeons' practice of EBM globally. The way forward involves collaboration among surgical societies, publishers, hospital employers, and international policymakers in providing surgeons from all country income levels with the access and training necessary to interpret and apply medical information.

Status of trauma quality improvement programs in the Andean region: What foundation do we have to build on.

INTRODUCTION: Trauma quality improvement (QI) programs have been shown to improve outcomes and decrease cost. These are high priorities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where 2,000,000 deaths due to survivable injuries occur each year. We sought to define areas for improvement in trauma QI programs in four LMICs. METHODS: We conducted a survey among trauma care providers in four Andean middle-income countries: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. RESULTS: 336 physicians, medical students, nurses, administrators and paramedical professionals responded to the cross-sectional survey with a response rate greater than 90% in all included countries except Bolivia, where the response rate was 14%. Eighty-seven percent of respondents reported morbidity and mortality (M&M) conferences occur at their hospital. Conferences were often reported as infrequent - 45% occurred less than every three months and poorly attended - 63% had five or fewer staff physicians present. Only 23% of conferences had standardized selection criteria, most lacked documentation - notes were taken at only 35% of conferences. Importantly, only 13% of participants indicated that discussions were routinely followed-up with any sort of corrective action. Multivariable analysis revealed the presence of standardized case selection criteria (OR 3.48, 95% CI 1.16-10.46), written documentation of the M&M conferences (OR 5.73, 95% CI 1.73-19.06), and a clear plan for follow-up (OR 4.80, 95% CI 1.59-14.50) to be associated with effective M&M conferences. Twenty-two percent of respondents worked at hospitals with a trauma registry. Fifty-two percent worked at institutions where autopsies were conducted, but only 32% of those reported the autopsy results to ever be used to improve hospital practice. CONCLUSIONS: M&M conferences are frequently practiced in the Andean region of Latin America but often lack methodologic rigor and thus effectiveness. Next steps in the maturation of QI programs include optimizing use of data from autopsies and registries, and systematic follow-up of M&M conferences with corrective action to ensure that these activities result in appreciable changes in clinical care.

Mixed-Methods Assessment of Trauma and Acute Care Surgical Quality Improvement Programs in Peru.

BACKGROUND: Evidence for the positive impact of quality improvement (QI) programs on morbidity, mortality, patient satisfaction, and cost is strong. Data regarding the status of QI programs in low- and middle-income countries, as well as in-depth examination of barriers and facilitators to their implementation, are limited. METHODS: This cross-sectional, descriptive study employed a mixed-methods design, including distribution of an anonymous quantitative survey and individual interviews with healthcare providers who participate in the care of the injured at ten large hospitals in Lima, Peru. RESULTS: Key areas identified for improvement in morbidity and mortality (M&M) conferences were the standardization of case selection, incorporation of evidence from the medical literature into case presentation and discussion, case documentation, and the development of a clear plan for case follow-up. The key barriers to QI program implementation were a lack of prioritization of QI, lack of sufficient human and administrative resources, lack of political support, and lack of education on QI practices. CONCLUSIONS: A national program that makes QI a required part of all health providers' professional training and responsibilities would effectively address a majority of identified barriers to QI programs in Peru. Specifically, the presence of basic QI elements, such as M&M conferences, should be required at hospitals that train pre-graduate physicians. Alternatively, short of this national-level organization, efforts that capitalize on local examples through apprenticeships between institutions or integration of QI into continuing medical education would be expected to build on the facilitators for QI programs that exist in Peru.

Surgeons' and Trauma Care Physicians' Perception of the Impact of the Globalization of Medical Education on Quality of Care in Lima, Peru.

Importance: The globalization of medical education-the process by which trainees in any region gain access to international training (electronic or in-person)-is a growing trend. More data are needed to inform next steps in the responsible stewardship of this process, from the perspective of trainees and institutions at all income levels, and for use by national and international policymakers. Objective: To describe the impact of the globalization of medical education on surgical care in Peru from the perspective of Peruvian surgeons who received international training. Design, Setting, and Participants: Observational study of qualitative interviews conducted from September 2015 to January 2016 using grounded theory qualitative research methods. The study was conducted at 10 large public institutions that provide most of the trauma care in Lima, Peru, and included urban resident and faculty surgery and trauma care physicians. Exposures: Access to international surgical rotations and medical information. Main Outcomes and Measures: Outcome measures defining the impact of globalization on surgical care were developed as part of simultaneous data collection and analysis during qualitative research as part of a larger project on trauma quality improvement practices in Peru. Results: Fifty qualitative interviews of surgeons and emergency medicine physicians were conducted at 10 hospitals, including multiple from the public and social security systems. A median of 4 interviews were conducted at each hospital, and fewer than 3 interviews were conducted at only 1 hospital. From the broader theme of globalization emerged subthemes of an eroded sense of agency and a perception of inadequate training on the adaptation of international standards as negative effects of globalization on surgical care in Peru. Access to research funds, provision of incentives for acquisition of advanced clinical training, increased expectations for patient outcomes, and education in quality improvement skills are ways in which globalization positively affected surgeons and their patients in Peru. Conclusions and Relevance: Short-term overseas training of surgeons from low- and middle-income countries may improve care in the surgeons' country of origin through the acquisition of skills and altered expectations for excellence. Prioritization of evidence-based medical education is necessary given widespread internet access and thus clinician exposure to variable quality medical information. Finally, the establishment of centers of excellence in low- and middle-income countries may address the eroded sense of agency attributable to globalization and offer a local example of world-class surgical outcomes, diminishing surgeons' most frequently cited reason for emigration: access to better surgical training.

"Improved" But Not Necessarily Safe: An Assessment of Fecal Contamination of Household Drinking Water in Rural Peru.

The indicator used to measure progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for water is access to an improved water supply. However, improved supplies are frequently fecally contaminated in developing countries. We examined factors associated with Escherichia coli contamination of improved water supplies in rural Pisco province, Peru. A random sample of 207 households with at least one child less than 5 years old was surveyed, and water samples from the source and storage container were tested for E. coli contamination. Although over 90% of households used an improved water source, 47% of source and 43% of stored water samples were contaminated with E. coli. Pouring or using a spigot to obtain water from the storage container instead of dipping a hand or object was associated with decreased risk of contamination of stored water (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 0.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.42, 0.80). Container cleanliness (aPR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.45, 1.00) and correct handwashing technique (aPR = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.42, 0.90) were also associated with decreased contamination risk. These findings highlighted the limitations of improved water supplies as an indicator of safe water access. To ensure water safety in the home, household water treatment and improved hygiene, water handling, and storage practices should be promoted.

Strengthening neurotrauma care systems in low and middle income countries.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To review basic elements to be considered in the development of effective neurotrauma care systems in low- and middle-income countries. Neurotrauma occurs more frequently in developing countries. The survival rate among neurotrauma patients depends in large part on the degree of sophistication of the trauma system. RESEARCH DESIGN: A critical review of the literature was undertaken. RESULTS: In developing countries, there are difficulties in fully integrating the resources for care if the local and regional trauma systems are poorly structured. Factors like inadequate emergency and neurointensive care, low compensation compared with elective procedures or high medico-legal risks may result in a lack of interest from the few available neurosurgeons to be fully integrated in neurotrauma care. Appropriate structuring of trauma systems according to countries needs and their functionality is a key element that would facilitate the optimal use of resources for integral neurotrauma care. CONCLUSIONS: In order to implement an efficient trauma system, organization of low cost resources such as trauma registries and quality control programmes are required. The participation of medical associations in legislative and government processes is also an important factor for the appropriate development and organization of an effective trauma system in under-privileged areas.

Traffic related deaths in Nuevo Leon, Mexico: causes and associated factors.

OBJECTIVE: The effects of alcohol on mortality due to motor vehicle accidents was studied. MATERIAL AND METHODS: During the first semester of 2003, a sample of 243 fatality victims of traffic-related accidents and their blood alcohol levels were analyzed in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico. The age-adjusted mortality rate for traffic accidents was 8.9/100000 pop. (13.2 for males and 3.21 for females, per 100000). Fatal accidents were more common in the Metropolitan Area (MA). RESULTS: Fatalities were four times greater in males and the mean age was 34.7+/-18.2 years. Blood alcohol was detected in almost half of the victims who were drivers of the vehicles; the other cases of fatalities may be associated with road/car condition, weather and other factors. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol intoxication levels were primarily associated with male drivers ages 16 to 45 (p=0.029); levels increased with age. In females, alcohol played a lesser role, affecting mostly ages 31 to 45 y (p=0.055).

[Impact-absorbing and containment barriers: reduction in accident mortality]. / Barriles de absorción y contención del impacto: reducción de mortalidad por accidentes de tránsito.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of the installation of an impact absorption and containment device (Spanish abbreviation, BAFI) on the reduction of traffic accident fatalities at edge crossings in the city of Monterrey, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information about accidents was obtained from January 1,2000 to December 31,2005 from intersections with and without BAFI. RESULTS: During the study period, 142 accidents were registered in edge intersections, with 59 deaths in intersections without BAFIs and five in those where the devices were installed. CONCLUSIONS: The BAFI devices represent a quick and low-cost step for reducing mortality and serious injury due to accidents in edge crossings.

Traffic related deaths in Nuevo Leon, Mexico: causes and associated factors

OBJECTIVE: The effects of alcohol on mortality due to motor vehicle accidents was studied. MATERIAL AND METHODS: During the first semester of 2003, a sample of 243 fatality victims of traffic-related accidents and their blood alcohol levels were analyzed in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico. The age-adjusted mortality rate for traffic accidents was 8.9/100000 pop. (13.2 for males and 3.21 for females, per 100000). Fatal accidents were more common in the Metropolitan Area (MA). RESULTS: Fatalities were four times greater in males and the mean age was 34.7±18.2 years. Blood alcohol was detected in almost half of the victims who were drivers of the vehicles; the other cases of fatalities may be associated with road/car condition, weather and other factors. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol intoxication levels were primarily associated with male drivers ages 16 to 45 (p=0.029); levels increased with age. In females, alcohol played a lesser role, affecting mostly ages 31 to 45 y (p=0.055).

OBJETIVO:Durante seis meses de 2003 se estudió el efecto del alcohol en 243 víctimas fatales relacionadas con accidentes viales del estado de Nuevo León, México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó autopsia en todos los casos y se determinó el nivel de alcohol en sangre. La tasa de mortalidad ajustada por edad para accidentes viales fue 8.9/100000 hab. (13.2 para hombres y 3.21 para mujeres, por 100000). Accidentes fatales fueron comunes en el Área Metropolitana. RESULTADOS: Las fatalidades fueron cuatro veces mayores en hombres y la edad promedio fue de 34.7±18.2 años. Se detectaron niveles de alcohol en sangre en casi la mitad de los conductores que fueron víctimas; los otros casos de fatalidad fueron asociados con las condiciones del camino, el auto, factores meteorológicos, entre otros. CONCLUSIONES: Los niveles de intoxicación alcohólica fueron básicamente con conductores masculinos, de 16-45 años (p=0.029), aumentando con la edad. Entre las mujeres, el alcohol jugó un papel menos preponderante, afectando mayormente las de 31-45 años (p=0.055).

Barriles de absorción y contención del impacto: reducción de mortalidad por accidentes de tránsito / Impact-absorbing and containment barriers: reduction in accident mortality

OBJETIVO: Determinar el efecto en la reducción de la mortalidad por accidentes de tránsito de la instalación de un dispositivo de absorción y contención de impacto (BAFI),en cruceros de eje estrecho en la ciudad de Monterrey, México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se obtuvo información sobre accidentes del 1 de enero de 2000 al 31 de diciembre de 2005 en cruceros con o sin BAFI. RESULTADOS:En el periodo de estudio se registraron 142 accidentes en cruceros de eje estrecho, con 59 muertes en cruceros sin BAFI y cinco en aquellos donde se instaló este dispositivo. CONCLUSIONES: Los dispositivos BAFI representan una medida rápida y de bajo costo para reducir la mortalidad y gravedad de lesiones por accidentes en cruceros de eje estrecho.

OBJECTIVE:Todetermine the effect of the installation of an impact absorption and containment device (Spanish abbreviation, BAFI) on the reduction of traffic accident fatalities at edge crossings in the city of Monterrey, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Information about accidents was obtained from January 1,2000 to December 31,2005 from intersections with and without BAFI. RESULTS:During the study period, 142 accidents were registered in edge intersections, with 59 deaths in intersections without BAFIs and five in those where the devices were installed. CONCLUSIONS:The BAFI devices represent a quick and low-cost step for reducing mortality and serious injury due to accidents in edge crossings.

Effect of emergency medical technician certification for all prehospital personnel in a Latin American city.

BACKGROUND: In Mexico and most other Latin American countries, many emergency medical services (EMS) systems rely on employees and volunteers with only on-the-job training and without formal Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) certification. This study sought to evaluate the costs and effectiveness of providing EMT certification to all personnel working in an EMS service in a Mexican city. METHODS: At baseline, only 20% of the prehospital personnel (medics) working for the EMS service in Santa Catarina, Nuevo Leon, Mexico had EMT certification. During a 14-month period, all such medics obtained EMT certification. The process and outcome of trauma care were assessed before and after this training. RESULTS: Mortality among persons treated by this EMS service decreased from 1.8% Before to 0.5% after the training. The injury severity, as reflected by the prehospital index (PHI), was different between the two periods. Hence, adjustment for PHI by logistic regression was performed. The PHI- adjusted odds ratio for death in the after period was 0.55 compared with the before period, representing a 45% reduction in risk of death after EMT training. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the promotion of policies that require and enable EMT certification for all prehospital care providers in Mexico and potentially also in other Latin American and other middle-income developing countries.

Evaluation of Trauma Care capabilities in four countries using the WHO-IATSIC Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care.

BACKGROUND: We sought to identify affordable and sustainable methods to strengthen trauma care capabilities globally, especially in developing countries, using the Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care. These guidelines were created by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Society of Surgery and provide recommendations on elements of trauma care that should be in place at the range of health facilities globally. METHODS: The guidelines were used as a basis for needs assessments in 4 countries selected to represent the world's range of geographic and economic conditions: Mexico (middle income; Latin America); Vietnam (low income; east Asia); India (low income; south Asia); and Ghana (low income; Africa). One hundred sites were assessed, including rural clinics (n=51), small hospitals (n=34), and large hospitals (n=15). Site visits utilized direct inspection and interviews with administrative and clinical staff. RESULTS: Resources were partly adequate or adequate at most large hospitals, but there were gaps that could be improved, especially in low-income settings, such as shortages of airway equipment, chest tubes, and trauma-related medications; and prolonged periods where critical equipment (e.g., X-ray, laboratory) were unavailable while awaiting repairs. Rural clinics everywhere had difficulties with basic supplies for resuscitation even though some received significant trauma volumes. In all settings, there was a dearth of administrative functions to assure quality trauma care, including trauma registries, trauma-related quality improvement programs, and regular in-service training. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified several low-cost ways in which to strengthen trauma care globally. It also has demonstrated the usefulness of the Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care in providing an internationally applicable, standardized template by which to assess trauma care capabilities.

Evaluating trauma care capabilities in Mexico with the World Health Organization's Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care publication.

OBJECTIVE: To identify affordable, sustainable methods to strengthen trauma care capabilities in Mexico, using the standards in the Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care, a publication that was developed by the World Health Organization and the International Society of Surgery to provide recommendations on elements of trauma care that should be in place in the various levels of health facilities in all countries. METHODS: The Guidelines publication was used as a basis for needs assessments conducted in 2003 and 2004 in three Mexican states. The states were selected to represent the range of geographic and economic conditions in the country: Oaxaca (south, lower economic status), Puebla (center, middle economic status), and Nuevo León (north, higher economic status). The sixteen facilities that were assessed included rural clinics, small hospitals, and large hospitals. Site visits incorporated direct inspection of physical resources as well as interviews with key administrative and clinical staff. RESULTS: Human and physical resources for trauma care were adequate in the hospitals, especially the larger ones. The survey did identify some deficiencies, such as shortages of stiff suction tips, pulse oximetry equipment, and some trauma-related medications. All of the clinics had difficulties with basic supplies for resuscitation, even though some received substantial numbers of trauma patients. In all levels of facilities there was room for improvement in administrative functions to assure quality trauma care, including trauma registries, trauma-related quality improvement programs, and uniform in-service training. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified several low-cost ways to strengthen trauma care in Mexico. The study also highlighted the usefulness of the recommended norms in the Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care publication in providing a standardized template by which to assess trauma care capabilities in nations worldwide.

Evaluating trauma care capabilities in Mexico with the World Health Organization's Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care publication / La evaluación de los recursos para el tratamiento de heridos en México a la luz de las pautas publicadas por la Organización Mundial de la Salud, Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care

OBJETIVO: Identificar formas asequibles y sustentables de reforzar los recursos para la atención de heridos en México aplicando las pautas contenidas en Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care [Pautas para el tratamiento básico de los heridos], publicación de la Organización Mundial de la Salud y de la Sociedad Quirúrgica Internacional que contiene recomendaciones sobre los componentes de la atención de heridos que deben poseer los servicios de salud de distintos niveles en todos los países. MÉTODOS: Las pautas publicadas (Guidelines) sirvieron de base para llevar a cabo evaluaciones de las necesidades en tres estados mexicanos en 2003 y en 2004. Los estados se escogieron con la idea de que estuviese representada la amplia variedad de condiciones geográficas y económicas del país: Oaxaca (en el sur y de estrato económico inferior), Puebla (en el centro y con un estrato económico mediano) y Nuevo León (en el norte y con un estrato económico más alto). Se evaluaron dieciséis centros entre los cuales había puestos de salud rurales, hospitales pequeños y hospitales grandes. Se hicieron visitas a todos los centros para llevar a cabo la inspección directa de los recursos físicos en cada uno y entrevistar a miembros clave del personal administrativo y clínico. RESULTADOS: Los recursos humanos y físicos destinados a la atención de heridos eran de calidad satisfactoria en los hospitales, especialmente los más grandes. La encuesta reveló algunas deficiencias, tales como una escasez de succionadores rígidos, oxímetros de pulso y algunos medicamentos usados para tratar heridos. En todos los puestos se observaron dificultades con los equipos básicos de reanimación, a pesar de que algunos recibían un número bastante alto de heridos. En los centros de todos los niveles había margen para mejorar las funciones administrativas a fin de conseguir una atención de calidad que incluyese el mantenimiento de registros de heridos, programas para mejorar la atención de estos pacientes y uniformidad en el adiestramiento del personal durante el desempeño de sus funciones. CONCLUSIONES: En este estudio se identificaron varias formas baratas de reforzar la atención de pacientes heridos en México. También se subrayó la utilidad de las pautas recomendadas en la obra Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care como modelo estandarizado para evaluar los recursos para el tratamiento de heridos que poseen los países en cualquier parte del mundo.

OBJECTIVE. To identify affordable, sustainable methods to strengthen trauma care capabilities in Mexico, using the standards in the Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care, a publication that was developed by the World Health Organization and the International Society of Surgery to provide recommendations on elements of trauma care that should be in place in the various levels of health facilities in all countries. METHODS. The Guidelines publication was used as a basis for needs assessments conducted in 2003 and 2004 in three Mexican states. The states were selected to represent the range of geographic and economic conditions in the country: Oaxaca (south, lower economic status), Puebla (center, middle economic status), and Nuevo León (north, higher economic status). The sixteen facilities that were assessed included rural clinics, small hospitals, and large hospitals. Site visits incorporated direct inspection of physical resources as well as interviews with key administrative and clinical staff. RESULTS. Human and physical resources for trauma care were adequate in the hospitals, especially the larger ones. The survey did identify some deficiencies, such as shortages of stiff suction tips, pulse oximetry equipment, and some trauma-related medications. All of the clinics had difficulties with basic supplies for resuscitation, even though some received substantial numbers of trauma patients. In all levels of facilities there was room for improvement in administrative functions to assure quality trauma care, including trauma registries, traumarelated quality improvement programs, and uniform in-service training. CONCLUSIONS. This study identified several low-cost ways to strengthen trauma care in Mexico. The study also highlighted the usefulness of the recommended norms in the Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care publication in providing a standardized template by which to assess trauma care capabilities in nations worldwide.