A2AR eGFP reporter mouse enables elucidation of A2AR expression dynamics during anti-tumor immune responses.

There is significant clinical interest in targeting adenosine-mediated immunosuppression, with several small molecule inhibitors having been developed for targeting the A2AR receptor. Understanding of the mechanism by which A2AR is regulated has been hindered by difficulty in identifying the cell types that express A2AR due to a lack of robust antibodies for these receptors. To overcome this limitation, here an A2AR eGFP reporter mouse is developed, enabling the expression of A2AR during ongoing anti-tumor immune responses to be assessed. This reveals that A2AR is highly expressed on all tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte subsets including Natural Killer (NK) cells, NKT cells, γδ T cells, conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and on a MHCIIhiCD86hi subset of type 2 conventional dendritic cells. In response to PD-L1 blockade, the emergence of PD-1+A2AR- cells correlates with successful therapeutic responses, whilst IL-18 is identified as a cytokine that potently upregulates A2AR and synergizes with A2AR deficiency to improve anti-tumor immunity. These studies provide insight into the biology of A2AR in the context of anti-tumor immunity and reveals potential combination immunotherapy approaches.

BET Inhibition Enhances TNF-Mediated Antitumor Immunity.

Targeting chromatin binding proteins and modifying enzymes can concomitantly affect tumor cell proliferation and survival, as well as enhance antitumor immunity and augment cancer immunotherapies. By screening a small-molecule library of epigenetics-based therapeutics, BET (bromo- and extra-terminal domain) inhibitors (BETi) were identified as agents that sensitize tumor cells to the antitumor activity of CD8+ T cells. BETi modulated tumor cells to be sensitized to the cytotoxic effects of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF. By preventing the recruitment of BRD4 to p65-bound cis-regulatory elements, BETi suppressed the induction of inflammatory gene expression, including the key NF-κB target genes BIRC2 (cIAP1) and BIRC3 (cIAP2). Disruption of prosurvival NF-κB signaling by BETi led to unrestrained TNF-mediated activation of the extrinsic apoptotic cascade and tumor cell death. Administration of BETi in combination with T-cell bispecific antibodies (TCB) or immune-checkpoint blockade increased bystander killing of tumor cells and enhanced tumor growth inhibition in vivo in a TNF-dependent manner. This novel epigenetic mechanism of immunomodulation may guide future use of BETi as adjuvants for immune-oncology agents.

Discrete tissue microenvironments instruct diversity in resident memory T cell function and plasticity.

Tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells are non-recirculating cells that exist throughout the body. Although TRM cells in various organs rely on common transcriptional networks to establish tissue residency, location-specific factors adapt these cells to their tissue of lodgment. Here we analyze TRM cell heterogeneity between organs and find that the different environments in which these cells differentiate dictate TRM cell function, durability and malleability. We find that unequal responsiveness to TGFß is a major driver of this diversity. Notably, dampened TGFß signaling results in CD103- TRM cells with increased proliferative potential, enhanced function and reduced longevity compared with their TGFß-responsive CD103+ TRM counterparts. Furthermore, whereas CD103- TRM cells readily modified their phenotype upon relocation, CD103+ TRM cells were comparatively resistant to transdifferentiation. Thus, despite common requirements for TRM cell development, tissue adaptation of these cells confers discrete functional properties such that TRM cells exist along a spectrum of differentiation potential that is governed by their local tissue microenvironment.

Characterization of Blimp-1 function in effector regulatory T cells.

Regulatory T (Treg) cells maintain immunological tolerance in steady-state and after immune challenge. Activated Treg cells can undergo further differentiation into an effector state that highly express genes critical for Treg cell function, including ICOS, TIGIT and IL-10, although how this process is controlled is poorly understood. Effector Treg cells also specifically express the transcriptional regulator Blimp-1 whose expression overlaps with many of the canonical markers associated with effector Treg cells, although not all ICOS+TIGIT+ Treg cells express Blimp-1 or IL-10. In this study, we addressed the role of Blimp-1 in effector Treg cell function. Mice lacking Blimp-1 specifically in Treg cells mature normally, but succumb to a multi-organ inflammatory disease later in life. Blimp-1 is not required for Treg cell differentiation, with mutant mice having increased numbers of effector Treg cells, but regulated a suite of genes involved in cell signaling, communication and survival, as well as being essential for the expression of the immune modulatory cytokine IL-10. Thus, Blimp-1 is a marker of effector Treg cells in all contexts examined and is required for the full functionality of these cells during aging.

Essential role for the histone acetyltransferase KAT7 in T cell development, fitness, and survival.

Histone acetylation has an important role in gene regulation, DNA replication, and repair. Because these processes are central to the development of the immune system, we investigated the role of a previously unstudied histone acetyltransferase named KAT7 (also known as Myst2 or HBO1) in the regulation of thymopoiesis and observed a critical role in the regulation of conventional and innate-like T cell development. We found that KAT7-deficient thymocytes displayed normal, positive selection and development into mature single-positive αß thymocytes; however, we observed few peripheral CD4+ or CD8+ T cells. The observed effects did not appear to arise from alterations to DNA replication, the TCR repertoire, or a block in thymocyte maturation and, more likely, was linked to survival defects related to gene deregulation because KAT7 deficiency led to an almost complete and specific loss of global histone-H3 lysine 14 acetylation (H3K14ac). Overall, we demonstrated a nonredundant role for KAT7 in the maintenance of H3K14ac, which is intimately linked with the ability to develop a normal immune system.

Acetylation of the Cd8 Locus by KAT6A Determines Memory T Cell Diversity.

How functionally diverse populations of pathogen-specific killer T cells are generated during an immune response remains unclear. Here, we propose that fine-tuning of CD8αß co-receptor levels via histone acetylation plays a role in lineage fate. We show that lysine acetyltransferase 6A (KAT6A) is responsible for maintaining permissive Cd8 gene transcription and enabling robust effector responses during infection. KAT6A-deficient CD8(+) T cells downregulated surface CD8 co-receptor expression during clonal expansion, a finding linked to reduced Cd8α transcripts and histone-H3 lysine 9 acetylation of the Cd8 locus. Loss of CD8 expression in KAT6A-deficient T cells correlated with reduced TCR signaling intensity and accelerated contraction of the effector-like memory compartment, whereas the long-lived memory compartment appeared unaffected, a result phenocopied by the removal of the Cd8 E8I enhancer element. These findings suggest a direct role of CD8αß co-receptor expression and histone acetylation in shaping functional diversity within the cytotoxic T cell pool.

Th17 cell differentiation proceeds independently of IRF8.

The transcriptional repressor/activator interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) modulates the differentiation of a multitude of hematopoietic lineages. However, the role of IRF8 in CD4(+) T-cell development is less well defined, with a recent study implicating IRF8 as an intrinsic repressor of interleukin-17 (IL-17) expressing T helper type 17 (Th17) cell differentiation. Using an IRF8-EGFP reporter strain we have confirmed that IRF8 is expressed in all T helper lineages, including Th17 cells. The loss of IRF8 did not affect Th17 differentiation in vitro, beyond a small increase in IL-22 expression. Moreover, IRF8 deficiency did not enhance the Th17 immune response in experimental T-cell transfer colitis. Together, these results suggest that IRF8 does not play an essential intrinsic role in Th17 cell differentiation.

T-box Transcription Factors Combine with the Cytokines TGF-ß and IL-15 to Control Tissue-Resident Memory T Cell Fate.

Tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells contribute to local immune protection in non-lymphoid tissues such as skin and mucosa, but little is known about their transcriptional regulation. Here we showed that CD8(+)CD103(+) Trm cells, independent of circulating memory T cells, were sufficient for protection against infection and described molecular elements that were crucial for their development in skin and lung. We demonstrated that the T-box transcription factors (TFs) Eomes and T-bet combined to control CD8(+)CD103(+) Trm cell formation, such that their coordinate downregulation was crucial for TGF-ß cytokine signaling. TGF-ß signaling, in turn, resulted in reciprocal T-box TF downregulation. However, whereas extinguishment of Eomes was necessary for CD8(+)CD103(+) Trm cell development, residual T-bet expression maintained cell surface interleukin-15 (IL-15) receptor ß-chain (CD122) expression and thus IL-15 responsiveness. These findings indicate that the T-box TFs control the two cytokines, TGF-ß and IL-15, which are pivotal for CD8(+)CD103(+) Trm cell development and survival.

Age-related changes in ovarian characteristics, plasma sex steroids and fertility during pubertal development in captive female Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii.

Age-related changes in ovarian development characteristics and plasma sex steroids in female Murray cod were examined throughout their second, third and fourth years of life to better understand the physiological and endocrine processes associated with puberty in this species in captivity. Spawning performance of 2+ and 3+ year old females was also assessed to identify ontogenetic differences in egg fertility. Puberty was acquired in 38% of 1+ year old females and 100% of age 2+ females. By age 3+, all females had developed full (adult) reproductive function. Ovarian development in pubertal fish was characterised by a rapid transition between cortical alveoli and lipid droplet oogenic phases, coinciding with significantly lower plasma 17beta-oestradiol in age 2+ females (p<0.05). Mean mature oocyte diameter (2.44 mm), post-fertilisation viability (30.80%) and hatchability (0.99%) of eggs from age 2+ females were significantly reduced relative to age 3+ adults (2.81 mm, 84.89% and 23.58%, respectively). Ovaries of pubertal Murray cod exhibited both vitellogenic and ovulatory capacities, yet functional abnormalities during secondary oocyte growth are likely to have contributed to poor egg fertility and consequently, evaluations of age-at-first maturity based on the presence of advanced ovarian stages may overestimate the reproductive potential of younger broodstock populations.

Temporal dynamics of oocyte development, plasma sex steroids and somatic energy reserves during seasonal ovarian maturation in captive Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii.

The temporal dynamics of oocyte growth, plasma sex steroids and somatic energy stores were examined during a 12 month ovarian maturation cycle in captive Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii under simulated natural photothermal conditions. Ovarian function was found to be relatively uninhibited in captivity, with the exception that post-vitellogenic follicles failed to undergo final maturation, resulting in widespread pre-ovulatory atresia. Seasonal patterns of oocyte growth were characterised by cortical alveoli accumulation in March, deposition of lipids in April, and vitellogenesis between May and September. Two distinct batches of vitellogenic oocytes were found in Murray cod ovaries, indicating a capacity for multiple spawns. Plasma profiles of 17beta-oestradiol and testosterone were both highly variable during the maturation period suggesting that multiple roles exist for these steroids during different stages of oocyte growth. Condition factor, liver size and visceral fat stores were all found to increase prior to, or during the peak phase of vitellogenic growth. Murray cod appear to strategically utilise episodes of high feeding activity to accrue energy reserves early in the reproductive cycle prior to its deployment during periods of rapid ovarian growth.