Nuclear Egress of Herpesviruses: The Prototypic Vesicular Nucleocytoplasmic Transport.

Herpesvirus particles mature in two different cellular compartments. While capsid assembly and packaging of the genomic linear double-stranded DNA occur in the nucleus, virion formation takes place in the cytoplasm by the addition of numerous tegument proteins as well as acquisition of the viral envelope by budding into cellular vesicles derived from the trans-Golgi network containing virally encoded glycoproteins. To gain access to the final maturation compartment, herpesvirus nucleocapsids have to cross a formidable barrier, the nuclear envelope (NE). Since the ca. 120 nm diameter capsids are unable to traverse via nuclear pores, herpesviruses employ a vesicular transport through both leaflets of the NE. This process involves proteins which support local dissolution of the nuclear lamina to allow access of capsids to the inner nuclear membrane (INM), drive vesicle formation from the INM and mediate inclusion of the capsid as well as scission of the capsid-containing vesicle (also designated as "primary virion"). Fusion of the vesicle membrane (i.e., the "primary envelope") with the outer nuclear membrane subsequently results in release of the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm for continuing virion morphogenesis. While this process has long been thought to be unique for herpesviruses, a similar pathway for nuclear egress of macromolecular complexes has recently been observed in Drosophila. Thus, herpesviruses may have coopted a hitherto unrecognized cellular mechanism of vesicle-mediated nucleocytoplasmic transport. This could have far reaching consequences for our understanding of cellular functions as again unraveled by the study of viruses.

Herpesvirus nuclear egress: Pseudorabies Virus can simultaneously induce nuclear envelope breakdown and exit the nucleus via the envelopment-deenvelopment-pathway.

Herpesvirus replication takes place in the nucleus and in the cytosol. After entering the cell, nucleocapsids are transported to nuclear pores where viral DNA is released into the nucleus. After gene expression and DNA replication new nucleocapsids are assembled which have to exit the nucleus for virion formation in the cytosol. Since nuclear pores are not wide enough to allow passage of the nucleocapsid, nuclear egress occurs by vesicle-mediated transport through the nuclear envelope. To this end, nucleocapsids bud at the inner nuclear membrane (INM) recruiting a primary envelope which then fuses with the outer nuclear membrane (ONM). In the absence of this regulated nuclear egress, mutants of the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus have been described that escape from the nucleus after virus-induced nuclear envelope breakdown. Here we review these exit pathways and demonstrate that both can occur simultaneously under appropriate conditions.

Functional characterization of nuclear trafficking signals in pseudorabies virus pUL31.

UNLABELLED: The herpesviral nuclear egress complex (NEC), consisting of pUL31 and pUL34 homologs, mediates efficient translocation of newly synthesized capsids from the nucleus to the cytosol. The tail-anchored membrane protein pUL34 is autonomously targeted to the nuclear envelope, while pUL31 is recruited to the inner nuclear membrane (INM) by interaction with pUL34. A nuclear localization signal (NLS) in several pUL31 homologs suggests importin-mediated translocation of the protein. Here we demonstrate that deletion or mutation of the NLS in pseudorabies virus (PrV) pUL31 resulted in exclusively cytosolic localization, indicating active nuclear export. Deletion or mutation of a predicted nuclear export signal (NES) in mutant constructs lacking a functional NLS resulted in diffuse nuclear and cytosolic localization, indicating that both signals are functional. pUL31 molecules lacking the complete NLS or NES were not recruited to the INM by pUL34, while site-specifically mutated proteins formed the NEC and partially complemented the defect of the UL31 deletion mutant. Our data demonstrate that the N terminus of pUL31, encompassing the NLS, is required for efficient nuclear targeting but not for pUL34 interaction, while the C terminus, containing the NES but not necessarily the NES itself, is required for complex formation and efficient budding of viral capsids at the INM. Moreover, pUL31-ΔNLS displayed a dominant negative effect on wild-type PrV replication, probably by diverting pUL34 to cytoplasmic membranes. IMPORTANCE: The molecular details of nuclear egress of herpesvirus capsids are still enigmatic. Although the key players, homologs of herpes simplex virus pUL34 and pUL31, which interact and form the heterodimeric nuclear egress complex, are well known, the molecular basis of this interaction and the successive budding, vesicle formation, and scission from the INM, as well as capsid release into the cytoplasm, remain largely obscure. Here we show that classical cellular targeting signals for nuclear import and export are important for proper localization and function of the NEC, thus regulating herpesvirus nuclear egress.

Identification of conserved amino acids in pUL34 which are critical for function of the pseudorabies virus nuclear egress complex.

UNLABELLED: Nuclear egress of herpesvirus capsids is mediated by a conserved heterodimeric complex of two viral proteins, designated pUL34 and pUL31 in herpes simplex virus and pseudorabies virus (PrV). pUL34, a tail-anchored membrane protein, is targeted to the nuclear envelope and recruits pUL31 to the inner nuclear membrane (INM) to provide the docking and envelopment machinery for the nascent capsid. While the less conserved C-terminal part of pUL34 is required for correct positioning of the nuclear egress complex (NEC) at the INM, the conserved N-terminal part functions as a docking site for pUL31. Since no crystal structure of NEC is available yet, structure-function studies depend on mutational analyses, with several approaches already being performed for different herpesvirus NECs. Here, we extended our studies on PrV pUL34 and identified two asparagine residues (N75, N103) and a dileucine motif (LL166/167), adjacent to an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal, which are absolutely required for NEC function. While the pUL34-N75A substitution mutant is unable to interact with pUL31, the pUL34-N103A mutant is nonfunctional, despite continuing complex formation. Surprisingly, mutant pUL34-G77A, which does not efficiently recruit pUL31 to the nuclear rim after cotransfection, nonetheless complements a UL34 deletion mutant, indicating that the NEC may be stabilized by additional viral factors during infection. IMPORTANCE: In the absence of a crystal structure of the nuclear egress complex (NEC) required for herpesvirus maturation, site-directed mutagenesis studies provide important information on critical amino acid residues. Here, we identify conserved amino acid residues in the membrane-bound component of the NEC which are relevant for its function.

Mapping of sequences in Pseudorabies virus pUL34 that are required for formation and function of the nuclear egress complex.

The nuclear egress complex (NEC) is required for efficient translocation of newly synthesized herpesvirus nucleocapsids from the nucleus to the cytosol. It consists of the type II membrane protein pUL34 which interacts with pUL31 at the inner nuclear membrane (INM). To map regions within pUL34 required for nuclear membrane targeting and pUL31 interaction, we constructed deletion/substitution mutations. Previously, we showed that 50 C-terminal amino acids (aa) of pseudorabies virus (PrV) pUL34, including the transmembrane domain, could be functionally replaced by cellular lamina-associated polypeptide 2ß (Lap2ß) sequences. In contrast, replacement of the C-terminal 100 aa abrogated complementation but not pUL31 interaction. To further delineate essential sequences within this region, C-terminal pUL34 truncations of 60, 70, 80, 85, and 90 aa fused to Lap2ß sequences were generated. While truncations up to 85 aa were functional, deletion of the C-terminal 90 aa abrogated function, which indicates that the important region is located between aa 171 and 176. Amino acids 173 to 175 represent RQR, a motif suggested to mediate INM targeting. Mutagenesis to RQG revealed that the mutant protein exhibited pronounced Golgi localization, but a fraction still reached the INM. Deletion mutations in the N-terminal domain of pUL34 demonstrated that absence of the first 4 aa was tolerated, while removal of 9 or more residues resulted in a nonfunctional protein. In addition, mutation of three conserved cysteines did not abrogate pUL34 function, whereas alteration of a conserved glutamine/tyrosine sequence yielded a nonfunctional protein.