Prevalence and Risk Factors for CKD in the General Population of Southwestern Nicaragua.

BACKGROUND: Studies have described Mesoamerican nephropathy among agricultural workers of El Salvador and northwestern Nicaragua. Data on prevalence and risk factors for CKD beyond agricultural workers and in other regions in Nicaragua are sparse. METHODS: We recruited participants from 32 randomly selected communities in the Department of Rivas's ten municipalities in two phases. In phase 1, we screened participants using a field-based capillary creatinine measuring system and collected self-reported information on lifestyle and occupational, exposure, and health histories. Two years later, in phase 2, we enrolled 222 new participants, performing serum creatinine testing in these participants and confirmatory serum creatinine testing in phase 1 participants. RESULTS: We enrolled 1242 of 1397 adults (89%) living in 533 households (median age 41 years; 43% male). We confirmed CKD (eGFR<60 ml/min per 1.73 m2) in 53 of 1227 (4.3%) evaluable participants. In multivariable testing, risk factors for prevalent CKD included age (odds ratio [OR], 1.92; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.89 to 1.96) and self-reported history of hypertension (OR, 1.95; 95% CI, 1.04 to 3.64), diabetes (OR, 2.88; 95% CI, 1.40 to 5.93), or current or past work in the sugarcane industry (OR 2.92; 95% CI, 1.36 to 6.27). CONCLUSIONS: Adjusted CKD prevalence was about 5% with repeat confirmatory testing in southwest Nicaragua, lower than in the northwest region. Risk factors included diabetes, hypertension, and current or prior work in the sugarcane industry but not in other forms of agricultural work. Formal CKD surveillance programs in Nicaragua are needed to assess the overall burden of CKD nationally, with a focus on agricultural workers.

Prevalence of Asthma and Allergies and Risk of Relapse in Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome: Insight into Nephrotic Syndrome Cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the lifetime prevalence of allergies in childhood nephrotic syndrome, the seasonality of presentation and relapses, and the impact of allergies on subsequent relapses. STUDY DESIGN: In a longitudinal cohort of children with nephrotic syndrome (ages 1-18 years), assessment for allergic diseases was conducted using the validated and modified version of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire at enrollment. Outcomes included frequently relapsing nephrotic syndrome, relapse rates, and the relapse-free duration after initial steroid therapy. RESULTS: Among 277 participants, the majority were male (65%) with a median age of 3.7 years (IQR 2.8-5.8) at presentation. A total of 64% reported lifetime allergies with 20% having asthma, 33% wheezing, 27% eczema, and 24% rhinitis. Over 3.3 years of follow-up, presence of asthma and allergies was not associated with frequently relapsing nephrotic syndrome (OR 1.20; 95% CI 0.60, 2.40), higher relapse rates (relative risk 0.95; 95% CI 0.71, 1.27), or risk of first relapse (hazard ratio 1.10; 95% CI 0.83, 1.47) compared with those with no history of allergic diseases. There was also no seasonal variation evident at initial presentation or frequency of relapses. CONCLUSIONS: Two-thirds of children with nephrotic syndrome at presentation have allergic symptoms and asthma; however, neither are associated with an increased frequency of relapses.

Global prevalence of protein-energy wasting in kidney disease: A meta-analysis of contemporary observational studies from the international society of renal nutrition and metabolism

Objective: To better define the prevalence of protein-energy wasting (PEW) in kidney disease is poorly defined. Methods: We performed a meta-analysis of PEW prevalence from contemporary studies including more than 50 subjects with kidney disease, published during 2000-2014 and reporting on PEW prevalence by subjective global assessment or malnutrition-inflammation score. Data were reviewed throughout different strata: (1) acute kidney injury (AKI), (2) pediatric chronic kidney disease (CKD), (3) nondialyzed CKD 3-5, (4) maintenance dialysis, and (5) subjects undergoing kidney transplantation (Tx). Sample size, period of publication, reporting quality, methods, dialysis technique, country, geographical region, and gross national income were a priori considered factors influencing between-study variability. Results: Two studies including 189 AKI patients reported a PEW prevalence of 60% and 82%. Five studies including 1776 patients with CKD stages 3-5 reported PEW prevalence ranging from 11% to 54%. Finally, 90 studies from 34 countries including 16,434 patients on maintenance dialysis were identified. The 25th-75th percentiles range in PEW prevalence among dialysis studies was 28-54%. Large variation in PEW prevalence across studies remained even when accounting for moderators. Mixed-effects meta-regression identified geographical region as the only significant moderator explaining 23% of the observed data heterogeneity. Finally, two studies including 1067 Tx patients reported a PEW prevalence of 28% and 52%, and no studies recruiting pediatric CKD patients were identified. Conclusion: By providing evidence-based ranges of PEW prevalence, we conclude that PEW is a common phenomenon across the spectrum of AKI and CKD. This, together with the well-documented impact of PEW on patient outcomes, justifies the need for increased medical attention.

Frailty in Children with Liver Disease: A Prospective Multicenter Study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess frailty, a measure of physiologic declines in multiple organ systems, in children with chronic liver disease using a novel pediatric frailty tool. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a prospective cross-sectional multicenter study at 17 liver transplantation (LT) centers. 71 children (5-17 years of age), 36 with compensated chronic liver disease (CCLD) and 35 with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) and listed for LT, were assessed for frailty using validated pediatric tools to assess the 5 classic Fried Frailty Criteria-slowness, weakness, exhaustion, diminished physical activity, and shrinkage. Test scores were translated to age- and sex-dependent z scores, generating a maximum frailty score of 10. RESULTS: The median frailty score of the cohort was 4 (IQR 3, 5). Subjects with ESLD had significantly higher frailty scores (median 5; IQR 4, 7) than subjects with CCLD (median 3; IQR 2, 4); (P < .0001). Area under the curve receiver operating characteristic for frailty scores to discriminate between ESLD and CCLD was 0.83 (95% CI 0.73, 0.93). Forty-six percent of children with ESLD were frail and there was no correlation between pediatric frailty scores and physician's global assessments (r = -0.24, 95% CI -0.53, 0.10). CONCLUSIONS: A novel frailty tool assessed additional dimensions of health, not captured by standard laboratory measures and identified the sickest individuals among a cohort of children with chronic liver disease. This tool may have applicability to other children with chronic disease.

The Rivas Cohort Study: design and baseline characteristics of a Nicaraguan cohort.

BACKGROUND: A lack of advanced healthcare information systems and validated scientific cohorts in Nicaragua makes it difficult to estimate disease prevalences and other public health statistics. Although there is concern of an "epidemic" of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in this country, statistics regarding its magnitude are derived from only a small number of non-representative studies. Budgetary constraints and the logistical problems of maintaining a study cohort make longitudinal studies difficult. The Rivas Cohort was created to measure disease burden of CKD and other public health priorities in the Department of Rivas, Nicaragua. Using primarily volunteer research students and technologic innovation including GPS, digital photography and point of care biochemical analysis, the ability to establish a longitudinal chronic disease cohort is demonstrated. METHODS: Subjects were recruited from consecutive adjacent households in thirty-two randomly selected communities in the ten municipalities that comprise the Department of Rivas in southern Pacific coastal Nicaragua. The study was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, subjects were enrolled into the cohort and consented for future re-contact. In Phase II, conducted two years later, attempts were made to re-contact 400 of these subjects for additional data collection. Demographic, lifestyle, occupational, exposure and health data was collected for both phases of the study. Blood and urine testing and height, weight and blood pressure measurements were also performed. GPS coordinates of homes were recorded and maps of remote communities created. RESULTS: Of 1397 adults living in 533 households approached for participation a total of 1242 (89 %) were enrolled in the cohort. The median age is 41 years and 43 % are male, demographics in agreement with Nicaraguan census data for the Department of Rivas. During Phase II we attempted to re-contact 400 subjects for a follow-up study of CKD. It was possible to re-contact 84 % of these participants and of those re-contacted 95 % agreed to participate in the follow-up study. Of subjects that were not successfully re-contacted the majority had either moved (32) or were not at home (22) at the time of the study team visits. CONCLUSION: The Rivas Cohort Study enrolled a representative sample of 1242 adults living in the Department of Rivas, Nicaragua. The high re-contact and participation rates at two years suggests that the cohort is suitable for long-term studies and presents opportunities for investigations of disease prevalence, incidence, treatment and other public health matters. GPS coordinates and maps are available for future researchers who wish to use the cohort for additional studies.

Chronic kidney disease prevalence in Rivas, Nicaragua: use of a field device for creatinine measurement.

OBJECTIVE: An epidemic of chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been identified in Pacific coastal regions of Central America, and screening in the field in these low income countries remains logistically problematic. We tested the performance characteristics of a point of care creatinine analyzer compared to standardized serum creatinine measurements. METHODS: Measurements were conducted in 100 persons from a local health center (n=34) and hospital (n=66) in Rivas, Nicaragua using both a point-of-care analyzer (StatSensor Xpress, Nova Biomedical) and serum creatinine by Jaffe kinetic method with a Roche Cobas Integra 400 analyzer. Percent coefficient of variation, sensitivity and specificity of the StatSensor Xpress were determined. RESULTS: The average coefficient of variation (CV) was 1.28% for the serum creatinine and CV for the StatSensor Xpress analyzer was 6.8%. The median intra-individual creatinine results obtained with the StatSensor Xpress device were 0.32 mg/dL higher than those by serum creatinine by Jaffe kinetic method. The sensitivity and specificity of the StatSensor Xpress device for identifying subjects with abnormal creatinine (defined as >1.2 mg/dL) was 100% and 79%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Point of care testing for creatinine demonstrated acceptable repeatability, excellent sensitivity (100%) and modest specificity (79%). Using the point of care testing will allow for generalized screening in the field in low income countries; however, confirmation for elevated levels >1.2 mg/dL will require a second laboratory test confirmation.

Ability of blood pressure to predict left ventricular hypertrophy in children with primary hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether casual blood pressure (BP) or ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) measurements obtained at the initial visit of a child with confirmed hypertension (HTN) might predict left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), possibly obviating the need for echocardiography. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 184 children aged 3 to 20 years who were referred for initial evaluation of elevated BP at 3 tertiary care centers. Casual BP and various ambulatory BP variables were analyzed to determine their association with LVH, defined after echocardiography by cardiologist diagnosis or a left ventricular mass index equal to or greater than the sex-specific 95th percentile. RESULTS: A total of 41% of children who had echocardiograms had LVH. Children with LVH were significantly more likely to be non-white and have a higher body mass index z-score. There was no difference in casual systolic or diastolic BP index in children with hypertension who had LVH and children with hypertension without LVH. Children with systolic or diastolic BP loads > or = 50% were no more likely to have LVH than children with loads < 50%. CONCLUSION: LVH is common in children with newly diagnosed HTN. The initial examination of these children should include echocardiography, because neither the severity of casual BP elevation nor the presence of abnormal ambulatory BP results at initial diagnosis are predictive of LVH.