Systematics and diversification of the Ichthyomyini (Cricetidae, Sigmodontinae) revisited: evidence from molecular, morphological, and combined approaches.

Ichthyomyini, a morphologically distinctive group of Neotropical cricetid rodents, lacks an integrative study of its systematics and biogeography. Since this tribe is a crucial element of the Sigmodontinae, the most speciose subfamily of the Cricetidae, we conducted a study that includes most of its recognized diversity (five genera and 19 species distributed from southern Mexico to northern Bolivia). For this report we analyzed a combined matrix composed of four molecular markers (RBP3, GHR, RAG1, Cytb) and 56 morphological traits, the latter including 15 external, 14 cranial, 19 dental, five soft-anatomical and three postcranial features. A variety of results were obtained, some of which are inconsistent with the currently accepted classification and understanding of the tribe. Ichthyomyini is retrieved as monophyletic, and it is divided into two main clades that are here recognized as subtribes: one to contain the genus Anotomys and the other composed by the remaining genera. Neusticomys (as currently recognized) was found to consist of two well supported clades, one of which corresponds to the original concept of Daptomys. Accordingly, we propose the resurrection of the latter as a valid genus to include several species from low to middle elevations and restrict Neusticomys to several highland forms. Numerous other revisions are necessary to reconcile the alpha taxonomy of ichthyomyines with our phylogenetic results, including placement of the Cajas Plateau water rat (formerly Chibchanomys orcesi) in the genus Neusticomys (sensu stricto), and the recognition of at least two new species (one in Neusticomys, one in Daptomys). Additional work is necessary to confirm other unanticipated results, such as the non-monophyletic nature of Rheomys and the presence of a possible new genus and species from Peru. Our results also suggest that ichthyomyines are one of the main Andean radiations of sigmodontine cricetids, with an evolutionary history dating to the Late Miocene and subsequent cladogenesis during the Pleistocene.

Genetic Diversity of Bartonella spp. in Cave-Dwelling Bats and Bat Flies, Costa Rica, 2018.

To determine Bartonella spp. dynamics, we sampled bats and bat flies across 15 roosts in Costa Rica. PCR indicated prevalence of 10.7% in bats and 29.0% in ectoparasite pools. Phylogenetic analysis of 8 sequences from bats and 5 from bat fly pools revealed 11 distinct genetic variants, including 2 potentially new genotypes.

Socio-spatial organization reveals paternity and low kinship in the Honduran white bat (Ectophylla alba) in Costa Rica.

Ectophylla alba is a tent-making bat that roosts in mixed-sex clusters comprising adults and offspring. Our goal was to determine the genetic identity of individuals belonging to different roosting groups. We tested the hypothesis of kin selection as a major force structuring group composition. We used 9 microsatellites designed for E. alba to determine the genetic identity and probability of parentage of individuals. We analyzed parentage and kinship using the software ML-Relate, GenAIEx, and Cervus. The obtained relationship probabilities (0.5) revealed a clear maternal relationship between female adults and offspring with allele compatibility, and at least 5 relationships between male adults and pups. We found a low degree of relatedness within roosting groups. Between roosting groups at different sites, the mean probability of a half-sibling relationship ranged from 0.214 to 0.244 and, for full-sibling relationship, from 0.383 to 0.553. Genetically, adult individuals were poorly related within clusters, and kinship as an evolutionary force could not explain group membership.

The masked seducers: Lek courtship behavior in the wrinkle-faced bat Centurio senex (Phyllostomidae).

Centurio senex is an iconic bat characterized by a facial morphology deviating far from all other New World Leaf Nosed Bats (Phyllostomidae). The species has a bizarrely wrinkled face and lacks the characteristic nose leaf. Throughout its distribution from Mexico to Northern South America the species is most of the time rarely captured and only scarce information on its behavior and natural history is available. Centurio senex is frugivorous and one of the few bats documented to consume also hard seeds. Interestingly, the species shows a distinct sexual dimorphism: Adult males have more pronounced facial wrinkles than females and a fold of skin under the chin that can be raised in style of a face mask. We report the first observations on echolocation and mating behavior of Centurio senex, including synchronized audio and video recordings from an aggregation of males in Costa Rica. Over a period of 6 weeks we located a total of 53 perches, where during the first half of the night males were hanging with raised facial masks at a mean height of 2.35 m. Most of the time, the males moved just their wing tips, and spontaneously vocalized in the ultrasound range. Approaches of other individuals resulted in the perching male beating its wings and emitting a very loud, low frequency whistling call. Following such an encounter we recorded a copulation event. The observed aggregation of adult C. senex males is consistent with lek courtship, a behavior described from only few other bat species.

Wing morphology predicts individual niche specialization in Pteronotus mesoamericanus (Mammalia: Chiroptera).

Morphological variation between individuals can increase niche segregation and decrease intraspecific competition when heterogeneous individuals explore their environment in different ways. Among bat species, wing shape correlates with flight maneuverability and habitat use, with species that possess broader wings typically foraging in more cluttered habitats. However, few studies have investigated the role of morphological variation in bats for niche partitioning at the individual level. To determine the relationship between wing shape and diet, we studied a population of the insectivorous bat species Pteronotus mesoamericanus in the dry forest of Costa Rica. Individual diet was resolved using DNA metabarcoding, and bat wing shape was assessed using geometric morphometric analysis. Inter-individual variation in wing shape showed a significant relationship with both dietary dissimilarity based on Bray-Curtis estimates, and nestedness derived from an ecological network. Individual bats with broader and more rounded wings were found to feed on a greater diversity of arthropods (less nested) in comparison to individuals with triangular and pointed wings (more nested). We conclude that individual variation in bat wing morphology can impact foraging efficiency leading to the observed overall patterns of diet specialization and differentiation within the population.

The effect of local land use on aerial insectivorous bats (Chiroptera) within the two dominating crop types in the Northern-Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica.

Land transformation into agricultural areas and the intensification of management practices represent two of the most devastating threats to biodiversity worldwide. Within this study, we investigated the effect of intensively managed agroecosystems on bat activity and species composition within two focal areas differing in landscape structure. We sampled bats via acoustic monitoring and insects with flight interception traps in banana and pineapple monoculture plantations and two nearby protected forested areas within the area of Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. Our results revealed that general occurrence and feeding activity of bats was higher above plantations compared to forested areas. We also recorded higher species richness at recording sites in plantations. This trend was especially strong within a fragmented landscape, with only four species recorded in forests, but 12 above pineapple plantations. Several bat species, however, occurred only once or twice above plantations, and forest specialist species such as Centronycteris centralis, Myotis riparius and Pteronotus mesoamericanus were only recorded at forest sites. Our results indicated, that mostly mobile open space and edge foraging bat species can use plantations as potential foraging habitat and might even take advantage of temporal insect outbreaks. However, forests are vital refugia for several species, including slower flying forest specialists, and thus a prerequisite to safeguard bat diversity within agricultural dominated landscapes.

The bats of Rio Grande do Norte state, northeastern Brazil / Morcegos do estado do Rio Grande do Norte, nordeste do Brasil

Abstract Rio Grande do Norte is one of the smallest states in Brazil but has a rich diversity of ecosystems, including Caatinga vegetation, remnants of Atlantic Forest, coastal habitats, mangroves and large karstic areas with caves. However, its chiropteran fauna is little known, and the state contains conspicuous gaps of information on the occurrence and distribution of bats in Brazil. In order to reduce this information gap, based on a review of scientific literature and regional mammal collections, we list 42 species of bats, including new occurrences for 13 species and discussion on their conservation status. Results show that more than half (54%) of the recorded species are phyllostomid bats, and about one third of the bats in the state roosts in underground cavities. The Caatinga harbored the highest bat richness in the state, including the occurrence of four vulnerable species (Furipterus horrens, Lonchorhina aurita, Natalus macrourus and Xeronycteris vieirai). The Atlantic Forest needs to be more sampled, including mangroves, coastal habitats and areas of Caatinga in the central region of the state (Borborema highlands), which are virtually unsurveyed. Although the recent increase of studies on bats in the state, future studies should complement conventional mistnetting with active roost search and bioacoustical records in order to obtain better data for unraveling the bat fauna of Rio Grande do Norte.

Resumo O Rio Grande do Norte é um dos menores estados do Brasil, mas possui grande diversidade de ecossistemas, incluindo vegetação de Caatinga, Mata Atlântica, habitats costeiros, manguezais e grandes áreas cársticas com cavernas. No entanto, a fauna de quirópteros é pouco conhecida, e o estado contém lacunas importantes sobre a ocorrência e distribuição de morcegos no Brasil. Para reduzir essa lacuna de informação, com base em uma revisão da literatura científica e coleções regionais de mamíferos, listamos 42 espécies de morcegos, incluindo novas ocorrências para 13 espécies e discusões sobre seu estado de conservação. Os resultados mostram que mais de metade (54%) das espécies registradas são morcegos filostomídeos e cerca de um terço dos morcegos no estado se abrigam em cavidades subterrâneas. A Caatinga abrigou a maior riqueza de morcegos no estado, incluindo a ocorrência de quatro espécies vulneráveis (Furipterus horrens, Lonchorhina aurita, Natalus macrourus e Xeronycteris vieirai). A Mata Atlântica precisa ser mais amostradas, incluindo manguezais, habitats costeiros e áreas de Caatinga principalmente na região central do estado (planalto da Borborema), que são virtualmente inexplorados. Embora o recente aumento das investigações no estado em relação aos morcegos, estudos futuros devem complementar os métodos convencionais de captura com procura ativa de abrigos e monitoramento bioacústico para obter melhores dados na tarefa de desvendar a diversidade de morcegos do Rio Grande do Norte.

Neotropical bats that co-habit with humans function as dead-end hosts for dengue virus.

Several studies have shown Dengue Virus (DENV) nucleic acids and/or antibodies present in Neotropical wildlife including bats, suggesting that some bat species may be susceptible to DENV infection. Here we aim to elucidate the role of house-roosting bats in the DENV transmission cycle. Bats were sampled in households located in high and low dengue incidence regions during rainy and dry seasons in Costa Rica. We captured 318 bats from 12 different species in 29 households. Necropsies were performed in 205 bats to analyze virus presence in heart, lung, spleen, liver, intestine, kidney, and brain tissue. Histopathology studies from all organs showed no significant findings of disease or infection. Sera were analyzed by PRNT90 for a seroprevalence of 21.2% (51/241), and by PCR for 8.8% (28/318) positive bats for DENV RNA. From these 28 bats, 11 intestine samples were analyzed by RT-PCR. Two intestines were DENV RNA positive for the same dengue serotype detected in blood. Viral isolation from all positive organs or blood was unsuccessful. Additionally, viral load analyses in positive blood samples by qRT-PCR showed virus concentrations under the minimal dose required for mosquito infection. Simultaneously, 651 mosquitoes were collected using EVS-CO2 traps and analyzed for DENV and feeding preferences (bat cytochrome b). Only three mosquitoes were found DENV positive and none was positive for bat cytochrome b. Our results suggest an accidental presence of DENV in bats probably caused from oral ingestion of infected mosquitoes. Phylogenetic analyses suggest also a spillover event from humans to bats. Therefore, we conclude that bats in these urban environments do not sustain DENV amplification, they do not have a role as reservoirs, but function as epidemiological dead end hosts for this virus.

Understory bat roosts, availability and occupation patterns in a Neotropical rainforest of Costa Rica / Refugios de murciélagos en el sotobosque, disponibilidad y patrones de ocupación en un bosque Neotropical lluvioso de Costa Rica

Abstract:The strong link between bats and their roosts is widely recognized as being particularly significant. Despite this, roosting ecology of bats is poorly understood and much of the basic information is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the availability and occupation patterns of four roost types (trees, caves, termite nests and tents) used by bats at Tirimbina Biological Reserve (TBR), Costa Rica. To accomplish our aim, we systematically surveyed both sides of established trails and transects, looking for understory roosts. Potential roosts were examined for bat presence in order to establish occupation. Roost availability and density were estimated using traveled distances (km) and inspected area (10 m for trees/caves and 15 m for tents/termite nests) of each trail or transect sampled. For the tent roosts, data on taxonomic information of plant modified, type of architecture, condition and construction achievement were also recorded. The area surveyed represented 45.4 % of the total area of the TBR (345 ha). Tents were the most common roost (56.6 % of all roosts, N = 223), followed by trees (24.4 %, N = 96), termite nests (18.8 %, N = 74) and caves (0.2 %, N = 1). We detected only 27 roosts occupied by bats (6.8 % of all roosts, 0.17 occupied roosts/ha). Caves showed the highest occupation rate (100 %, N = 1), followed by trees (17.7 %, N = 17), tents (3.6 %, N = 8) and termite nests (1.3 %, N = 1). We found the roosts for 10 species, representing 33.9 % of the bat fauna documented at the reserve (62 species). Density of roosts per bat species varied between 0.017-0.138 roosts/ha. Phyllostomidae was the best-represented family with Micronycteris microtis representing the most common species encountered. Four distinct tent architectures were documented. Bifid architecture was the most common (133 tents), followed by Conical (47 tents), Apical (27 tents) and Inverted Boat (16 tents). Most of the tents found were healthy (76.7 %, N = 171) and totally constructed (88.8 %, N = 198). Our study demonstrated that occupied bat roosts are difficult to find in the forest. When compared to the roost availability, the low occupation rates suggested that, at least in our study area, roosts might not be a limiting resource. Nevertheless, to confirm this hypothesis, information about fidelity and selection process of the species is fundamental for understanding to what extent these roosts meet the requirements to be inhabited or modified. Worldwide conservation efforts on bats should focus on understanding roosting ecology, especially due to anthropogenic pressures that are continuously reducing the availability of roosts, which undoubtedly contributes to the risk of extinction for specialized and sensitive species. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (3): 1333-1343. Epub 2016 September 01.

ResumenLa estrecha relación entre los murciélagos y sus refugios es ampliamente reconocida por ser de particular importancia. A pesar de esto, la ecología de los refugios en murciélagos es pobremente comprendida y gran parte de la información básica aún es desconocida. En este estudio, investigamos la disponibilidad y los patrones de ocupación de cuatro tipos de refugios (árboles, cuevas, termiteros y tiendas) utilizados por los murciélagos en la Reserva Biológica Tirimbina (RBT), Costa Rica. Para lograr nuestro objetivo, nosotros inspeccionamos sistemáticamente ambos lados de senderos establecidos y transectos, en busca de refugios a nivel del sotobosque. Los refugios potenciales fueron examinados en busca de murciélagos con el fin de establecer la ocupación de los mismos. La disponibilidad y densidad de los refugios fue estimada utilizando la distancia recorrida (km) y el área inspeccionada (10 m para árboles/cuevas y 15 m para tiendas/termiteros) de cada sendero o transecto muestreado. Para los refugios en tiendas, también se registraron datos sobre información taxonómica de la planta modificada, el tipo de arquitectura, la condición y la consecución de la construcción. El área inspeccionada representa el 45.4 % del área total de la RBT (345 ha). Las tiendas fueron el refugio más común (56.6 % de todos los refugios, N = 223), seguido por los árboles (24.4 %, N = 96), los termiteros (18.8 %, N = 74) y las cuevas (0.2 %, N = 1). Detectamos únicamente 27 refugios ocupados por murciélagos (6.8 % de todos los refugios, 0.17 refugios ocupados/ha). Las cuevas mostraron la tasa más alta de ocupación (100 %, N = 1), seguido por los árboles (17.7 %, N = 17), las tiendas (3.6 %, N = 8) y los termiteros (1.3 %, N = 1). Encontramos los refugios de 10 especies, lo que representa un 33.9 % de la fauna de murciélagos documentada en la reserva (62 especies). La densidad de refugios por especie de murciélago varió entre 0.017-0.138 refugios/ha. Phyllostomidae fue la familia mejor representada, con Micronycteris microtis como la especie más común encontrada en los refugios. Cuatro tipos de arquitectura fueron documentadas en las tiendas. La arquitectura Bífida fue la más común (133 tiendas), seguida por la Cónica (47 tiendas), la Apical (27 tiendas) y la Bote Invertido (16 tiendas). La mayoría de las tiendas encontradas se encontraban en buen estado (76.7 %, N = 171) y totalmente construidas (88.8 %, N = 198). Nuestro estudio demostró que encontrar refugios ocupados por murciélagos en el bosque es difícil. Cuando es comparada con la disponibilidad de refugios, la baja tasa de ocupación sugiere que, al menos en nuestra área de estudio, los refugios podrían no ser un recurso limitante. No obstante, para confirmar esta hipótesis, información acerca de la fidelidad y el proceso de selección de las especies es fundamental para comprender en que medida estos refugios cumplen con los requerimientos para ser habitados o modificados. A nivel mundial, los esfuerzos de conservación de los murciélagos deberían priorizar en comprender la ecología de los refugios, especialmente debido a que las presiones antropogénicas están continuamente reduciendo la disponibilidad de este recurso, lo cual sin duda alguna contribuye al riesgo de extinción para las especies más sensibles y especializadas.

Understory bat roosts, availability and occupation patterns in a Neotropical rainforest of Costa Rica.

The strong link between bats and their roosts is widely recognized as being particularly significant. Despite this, roosting ecology of bats is poorly understood and much of the basic information is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the availability and occupation patterns of four roost types (trees, caves, termite nests and tents) used by bats at Tirimbina Biological Reserve (TBR), Costa Rica. To accomplish our aim, we systematically surveyed both sides of established trails and transects, looking for understory roosts. Potential roosts were examined for bat presence in order to establish occupation. Roost availability and density were estimated using traveled distances (km) and inspected area (10 m for trees/caves and 15 m for tents/termite nests) of each trail or transect sampled. For the tent roosts, data on taxonomic information of plant modified, type of architecture, condition and construction achievement were also recorded. The area surveyed represented 45.4 % of the total area of the TBR (345 ha). Tents were the most common roost (56.6 % of all roosts, N = 223), followed by trees (24.4 %, N = 96), termite nests (18.8 %, N = 74) and caves (0.2 %, N = 1). We detected only 27 roosts occupied by bats (6.8 % of all roosts, 0.17 occupied roosts/ha). Caves showed the highest occupation rate (100 %, N = 1), followed by trees (17.7 %, N = 17), tents (3.6 %, N = 8) and termite nests (1.3 %, N = 1). We found the roosts for 10 species, representing 33.9 % of the bat fauna documented at the reserve (62 species). Density of roosts per bat species varied between 0.017-0.138 roosts/ha. Phyllostomidae was the best-represented family with Micronycteris microtis representing the most common species encountered. Four distinct tent architectures were documented. Bifid architecture was the most common (133 tents), followed by Conical (47 tents), Apical (27 tents) and Inverted Boat (16 tents). Most of the tents found were healthy (76.7 %, N = 171) and totally constructed (88.8 %, N = 198). Our study demonstrated that occupied bat roosts are difficult to find in the forest. When compared to the roost availability, the low occupation rates suggested that, at least in our study area, roosts might not be a limiting resource. Nevertheless, to confirm this hypothesis, information about fidelity and selection process of the species is fundamental for understanding to what extent these roosts meet the requirements to be inhabited or modified. Worldwide conservation efforts on bats should focus on understanding roosting ecology, especially due to anthropogenic pressures that are continuously reducing the availability of roosts, which undoubtedly contributes to the risk of extinction for specialized and sensitive species.

Survey of wild mammal hosts of cutaneous leishmaniasis parasites in panamá and costa rica.

The eco-epidemiology of American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) is driven by animal reservoir species that are a source of infection for sand flies that serve as vectors infecting humans with Leishmania spp parasites. The emergence and re-emergence of this disease across Latin America calls for further studies to identify reservoir species associated with enzootic transmission. Here, we present results from a survey of 52 individuals from 13 wild mammal species at endemic sites in Costa Rica and Panama where ACL mammal hosts have not been previously studied. For Leishmania spp. diagnostics we employed a novel PCR technique using blood samples collected on filter paper. We only found Leishmania spp parasites in one host, the two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni. Our findings add further support to the role of two-toed sloths as an important ACL reservoir in Central America.

Maximum weight capacity of leaves used by tent-roosting bats: implicatons for social structure

Fewer than 2% of bats can modify their environment to construct roosts. Tent-roosting bats cut and fold leaves to form roosts called tents. Unlike the caves or hollow trees used by some bats, leaves possess an upper limit on their capacity to support weight. We tested the hypothesis that the maximum weight capacity that leaves can support limits the maximum social group size of bats that roost in them. We conducted research in the Tirimbina Biological Reserve (TBR), Sarapiquí, Costa Rica, between March and April 2012. We added weight incrementally to new leaves of three plant species until the angle of the leaves fell below that which bats naturally use. Philodendron fragrantissimum and Heliconia imbricata support one-third more weight than Asterogyne martiana. This study demonstrates that the maximum weight that the leaves can support is similar to the mean social group weight of D. watsoni and Ectophylla alba reported in the literature for these plant species and lower than the maximum reported social group weights. Therefore, it is possible that the maximum weight capacity of the leaves used to construct roosts limits the maximum social group size.(AU)

Maximum weight capacity of leaves used by tent-roosting bats: implicatons for social structure

Fewer than 2% of bats can modify their environment to construct roosts. Tent-roosting bats cut and fold leaves to form roosts called tents. Unlike the caves or hollow trees used by some bats, leaves possess an upper limit on their capacity to support weight. We tested the hypothesis that the maximum weight capacity that leaves can support limits the maximum social group size of bats that roost in them. We conducted research in the Tirimbina Biological Reserve (TBR), Sarapiquí, Costa Rica, between March and April 2012. We added weight incrementally to new leaves of three plant species until the angle of the leaves fell below that which bats naturally use. Philodendron fragrantissimum and Heliconia imbricata support one-third more weight than Asterogyne martiana. This study demonstrates that the maximum weight that the leaves can support is similar to the mean social group weight of D. watsoni and Ectophylla alba reported in the literature for these plant species and lower than the maximum reported social group weights. Therefore, it is possible that the maximum weight capacity of the leaves used to construct roosts limits the maximum social group size.

Diversidad, historia natural y conservación de los mamíferos de San Vito de Coto Brus, Costa Rica / Diversity, natural history and conservation of mammals from San Vito de Coto Brus, Costa Rica

Although Costa Rica has been biologically well studied,few areas have complete mammal inventories, which are essential for ecological studies and conservation. The San Vito region is considered among the most important for scientific research in the country because of the presence of the Wilson Botanical Garden and Las Cruces. However, the knowledge of its mammalian fauna is incomplete. We extensively studied the mammals of San Vito, compiled a checklist, and evaluated its composition, relative abundance, habitat distribution, and conservation status. We recorded 105 species, representing 85 genera, 29 families, and 10 orders. Non-volant mammals represented 62 species, 59 genera, 23 families, and 9 orders. Bats belonged to 6 families, 26 genera and 43 species. The extensive deforestation and hunting have caused the extinction of seven species, but the region still supports, surprisingly, a relatively high number of species, most of which are rare. Few species are common and abundant. Species richness was higher in forest, and forest fragments; fewer species were found in coffee plantations,induced grasslands, and secondary vegetation. Around 21% (13 species) are included in the IUCN red book. Three species are considered endangered (Saimiri oerstedii, Tapirus bairdii, and Sylvilagus dicei), and two threatened (Myrmecophaga trydactila and Caluromys derbianus), of which two (T. bairdii and M. trydactila) are locally extinct. The other species in IUCN are either of low risk (i. e. Chironectes minimus ) or data deficient (Lontra longicaudis). Additionally, 24 species (39%) are included in CITES.

Aunque Costa Rica ha sido biológicamente bien estudiada, pocas áreas tiene inventarios de mamíferos completos y actualizados,lo que es para llevar a cabo estudios ecológicos y de conservación. La región de San Vito es considerada entre las mas importantes para la investigación científica en el país, debido a la presencia del Jardín Botánico Wilson y la Estación Biológica Las Cruces. Sin embargo, el conocimiento de la mastofauna es incompleto. Por lo tanto se evaluó intensamente los mamíferos de San Vito, y se compiló una lista de especies, con una evaluación de su composición, abundancia relativa, distribución en los habitats, y su estado de conservación. Se registraron 105 especies, que representaron a 85 géneros, 29 familias y 10 órdenes. Los mamíferos no voladores representaron 62 especies, 59 géneros, 23 familias y 9 órdenes. Los murciélagos pertenecieron a 6 familias, 26 géneros y 43 especies. La extensa deforestación y cacería son factores que han causado la extinción local de 7especies, pero la región todavía mantiene un número relativamente alto de su diversidad original, incluyendo a especie raras. Pocas especies fueron comunes o abundantes. La riqueza de especies fue alta en el bosque y los fragmentos de bosque, y más baja en las plantaciones de café, pastizales inducidos y vegetación secundaria. Alrededor del 21% (13) de las espcies estan incluidad en el libro rojo de la UICN. Tres especies (Saimiri oerstedii, Tapirus bairdii y Sylvilagus dicei ) son consideradas en peligro y dos (Myrmecophaga trydactila y Caluromys derbianus ) como amenazadas:de estas, dos especies (T. bairdii and M. trydactila ) se encuentran localmente extintas. Las otras especies son consideradas de bajo riesgo (i. e. Chironectes minimus) o con poca información (i. e. Lontra longicaudis ). Adicionalmente, 24 especies (39%) están incluidas en CITES.

[Diversity, natural history and conservation of mammals from San Vito de Coto Brus, Costa Rica]. / Diversidad, historia natural y conservación de los mamiferos de San Vito de Coto Brus, Costa Rica.

Although Costa Rica has been biologically well studied, few areas have complete mammal inventories, which are essential for ecological studies and conservation. The San Vito region is considered among the most important for scientific research in the country because of the presence of the Wilson Botanical Garden and Las Cruces. However, the knowledge of its mammalian fauna is incomplete. We extensively studied the mammals of San Vito, compiled a checklist, and evaluated its composition, relative abundance, habitat distribution, and conservation status. We recorded 105 species, representing 85 genera, 29 families, and 10 orders. Non-volant mammals represented 62 species, 59 genera, 23 families, and 9 orders. Bats belonged to 6 families, 26 genera and 43 species. The extensive deforestation and hunting have caused the extinction of seven species, but the region still supports, surprisingly, a relatively high number of species, most of which are rare. Few species are common and abundant. Species richness was higher in forest, and forest fragments; fewer species were found in coffee plantations, induced grasslands, and secondary vegetation. Around 21% (13 species) are included in the IUCN red book. Three species are considered endangered (Saimiri oerstedii, Tapirus bairdii, and Sylvilagus dicei), and two threatened (Myrmecophaga trydactila and Caluromys derbianus), of which two (T. bairdii and M. trydactila) are locally extinct. The other species in IUCN are either of low risk (i.e. Chironectes minimus) or data deficient (Lontra longicaudis). Additionally, 24 species (39%) are included in CITES.