Buccal micronucleus cytome assay: results of an intra- and inter-laboratory scoring comparison.

The buccal micronucleus cytome (BMCyt) assay is a minimally invasive approach for measuring DNA damage, cell proliferation, cell differentiation and cell death in exfoliated buccal cells. The main limitation for its use is the lack of knowledge about inter- and intra-laboratory variability in scoring micronuclei and other end points included in the cytome approach. In order to identify the main sources of variability across the BMCyt biomarkers, a scoring exercise was carried out between three experienced laboratories using the same set of slides and an identical set of detailed scoring criteria and associated images for the different end points. Single batches of slides were prepared from pooled samples of four groups of subjects characterised by different frequencies of cell types and micronuclei, namely Down syndrome patients, head and neck cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy and two age- and gender-matched control groups. A good agreement among the laboratories in the identification of normal differentiated cells and of micronuclei was obtained. A 3-fold and 20-fold increase in the frequency of micronucleated cells and micronuclei in differentiated cells of Down syndrome patients and in cancer patients, respectively, compared to matched controls, was a consistent result in the three laboratories. The scores of other cell types and nuclear anomalies, such as basal, binucleated, condensed chromatin and karyorrhectic cells showed significant disagreement between and within laboratories indicating that their evaluation using the current visual scoring protocol does not yield robust results for these parameters. The guidelines for BMCyt assay application could be improved by combining the anomalies associated with cell death (condensed chromatin and karyorrhectic cells) in a single category and by defining more stringent criteria in classifying basal cell, binucleated cells and buds.

The micronucleus assay as a biological dosimeter in hospital workers exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation.

The health risk associated with low levels of ionizing radiation is still a matter of debate. A number of factors, such as non-target effects, adaptive responses and low-dose hypersensitivity, affect the long-term outcome of low-dose exposures. Cytogenetic bio-dosimetry provides a measure of the absorbed dose, taking into account the individual radiation sensitivity. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the value of the micronucleus (MN) test as a bio-dosimeter in hospital workers exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation. Blood samples were obtained from 30 subjects selected among workers exposed to X- and gamma-radiation, and 30 controls matched for sex, age and smoking from the same hospital. Micronucleus frequencies were analyzed by use of the cytokinesis-block method. The MN frequency was compared among the groups considering the confounding factors and the length of employment. No increase in the number of bi-nucleated cells with MN (BNMN), but a significant increase in the number of mono-nucleated cells with micronuclei (MOMN) was observed in exposed subjects compared with the controls. The relationship between MN frequency and accumulated dose (mSv) was evaluated. The length of employment did not affect the extent of MN frequency, but an increase of BNMN and MOMN cells was observed based on the accumulated radiation dose. Our study shows the sensitivity of the MN test in the detection of cytogenetic effects of cumulative exposure levels, suggesting the potential usefulness of this assay in providing a biological index in medical surveillance programs.

Characterization of glioma stem cells through multiple stem cell markers and their specific sensitization to double-strand break-inducing agents by pharmacological inhibition of ataxia telangiectasia mutated protein.

Previous studies have shown that tumor-driving glioma stem cells (GSC) may promote radio-resistance by constitutive activation of the DNA damage response started by the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) protein. We have investigated whether GSC may be specifically sensitized to ionizing radiation by inhibiting the DNA damage response. Two grade IV glioma cell lines (BORRU and DR177) were characterized for a number of immunocytochemical, karyotypic, proliferative and differentiative parameters. In particular, the expression of a panel of nine stem cell markers was quantified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and flow cytometry. Overall, BORRU and DR177 displayed pronounced and poor stem phenotypes, respectively. In order to improve the therapeutic efficacy of radiation on GSC, the cells were preincubated with a nontoxic concentration of the ATM inhibitors KU-55933 and KU-60019 and then irradiated. BORRU cells were sensitized to radiation and radio-mimetic chemicals by ATM inhibitors whereas DR177 were protected under the same conditions. No sensitization was observed after cell differentiation or to drugs unable to induce double-strand breaks (DSB), indicating that ATM inhibitors specifically sensitize glioma cells possessing stem phenotype to DSB-inducing agents. In conclusion, pharmacological inhibition of ATM may specifically sensitize GSC to DSB-inducing agents while sparing nonstem cells.

Defective resolution of pH2AX foci and enhanced DNA breakage in ionizing radiation-treated cockayne syndrome B cells.

We have previously shown that DNA repair of oxidized bases (either purines or pyrimidines) is inefficient in cells from patients with Cockayne syndrome (cs), a rare developmental and neurological genetic disorder. Here, we show for the first time that resolution of ionizing radiation (IR)-induced pH2AX foci, an indicator of DNA double-strand breaks, is significantly delayed in IR-treated cells belonging to the B complementation group of cs (csb). Using alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis, which predominantly detects single-strand breaks, we further demonstrate elevated DNA breakage in csb cells early after irradiation. Both the delayed resolution of pH2AX foci and the early DNA breakage of csb cells were partially complemented by expression of wild-type CSB protein. Hence, the csb mutation impairs resolution of pH2AX foci and causes DNA fragility, broadening the spectrum of lesions whose processing is altered in this syndrome.

Defective repair of 5-hydroxy-2'-deoxycytidine in Cockayne syndrome cells and its complementation by Escherichia coli formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase and endonuclease III.

Repair of the oxidized purine 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine is inefficient in cells belonging to both complementation groups A and B of Cockayne syndrome (CS), a developmental and neurological disorder characterized by defective transcription-coupled repair. We show here that both CS-A and CS-B cells are also defective in the repair of 5-hydroxy-2'-deoxycytidine (5-OHdC), an oxidized pyrimidine with cytotoxic and mutagenic properties. The defect in the repair of oxidatively damaged DNA in CS cells thus extends to oxidized pyrimidines, indicating a general flaw in the repair of oxidized lesions in this syndrome. The defect could not be reproduced in in vitro repair experiments on oligonucleotide substrates, suggesting a role for both CS-A and CS-B proteins in chromatin remodeling during 5-OHdC repair. Expression of Escherichia coli formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG) or endonuclease III complemented the 5-OHdC repair deficiency. Hence, the expression of a single enzyme, FPG from E. coli, stably corrects the delayed removal of both oxidized purines and oxidized pyrimidines in CS cells.

Comparative analysis of DNA repair in stem and nonstem glioma cell cultures.

It has been reported that cancer stem cells may contribute to glioma radioresistance through preferential activation of the DNA damage checkpoint response and an increase in DNA repair capacity. We have examined DNA repair in five stem and nonstem glioma cell lines. The population doubling time was significantly increased in stem compared with nonstem cells, and enhanced activation of Chk1 and Chk2 kinases was observed in untreated CD133(+) compared with CD133(-) cells. Neither DNA base excision or single-strand break repair nor resolution of pH2AX nuclear foci were increased in CD133(+) compared with CD133(-) cells. We conclude that glioma stem cells display elongated cell cycle and enhanced basal activation of checkpoint proteins that might contribute to their radioresistance, whereas enhanced DNA repair is not a common feature of these cells.

Complementation of the oxidatively damaged DNA repair defect in Cockayne syndrome A and B cells by Escherichia coli formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase.

Repair of the oxidized purine 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoGua) is inefficient in cells belonging to the B complementation group of Cockayne syndrome (CS-B), a developmental and neurological disorder characterized by defective transcription-coupled repair. We show here that cells belonging to the A complementation group (CS-A) are also defective in repair of 8-oxoGua and we demonstrate that expression of the Escherichia coli formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG) completely corrects the repair deficiency in both CS-A and CS-B cells. Phenotypically, CS-A cells are normally sensitive to toxicity and micronuclei induced by the oxidizing agent potassium bromate. CS-B cells display sensitivity to elevated concentrations of potassium bromate but this is not compensated by FPG expression, suggesting toxicity of lesions that are not FPG substrates. The data indicate that 8-oxoGua is not a major toxic and clastogenic lesion in CS cells.

In vitro base excision repair assay using mammalian cell extracts.

Base excision repair (BER) is the main pathway for removal of endogenous DNA damage. This repair mechanism is initiated by a specific DNA glycosylase that recognizes and removes the damaged base through N-glycosylic bond hydrolysis. The generated apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site can be repaired in mammalian cells by two alternative pathways which involve either the replacement of one (short patch BER) or more nucleotides (long patch BER) at the lesion site. This chapter describes a repair replication assay for measuring BER efficiency and mode in mammalian cell extracts. The DNA substrate used in the assay is either a randomly depurinated plasmid DNA or a plasmid containing a single lesion that is processed via BER (for example a single AP site or uracil residue). The construction of a single lesion at a defined site of the plasmid genome makes the substrate amenable to fine mapping of the repair patches, thus allowing discrimination between the two BER pathways.

Accelerated repair and reduced mutagenicity of oxidative DNA damage in human bladder cells expressing the E. coli FPG protein.

Repair of some oxidized purines such as 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG) is inefficient in human cells in comparison to repair of other major endogenous lesions (e.g. uracil, abasic sites or oxidized pyrimidines). This is due to the poor catalytic properties of hOGG1, the major DNA glycosylase involved in 8-oxoG removal. The formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG) protein from E. coli is endowed with a potent 8-oxoG glycolytic activity coupled with a beta,delta-AP lyase. In this study, we have expressed FPG fused to the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in human bladder cells to accelerate the repair of oxidative DNA damage. Cells expressing the fusion protein EGFP-FPG repaired 8-oxoG and AP sites at accelerated rates, in particular via the single-nucleotide insertion base excision repair (BER) pathway and were resistant to mutagenicity of the oxidizing carcinogen potassium bromate. FPG may stably protect human cells from some harmful effects of oxidative DNA damage.

Expression of the Drosophila melanogaster S3 ribosomal/repair protein in T24 human bladder cells.

Repair of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG) is inefficient in human cells due to the poor catalytic properties of hOGG1, the major DNA glycosylase involved in the removal of this oxidized base. The S3 ribosomal/repair protein from Drosophila melanogaster (dS3) is endowed with a potent 8-oxoG glycolytic activity coupled with a beta, delta-AP lyase. In vitro repair experiments have shown that pure GST-tagged dS3 can stimulate a > 40-fold increase in the rate of 8-oxoG repair by human cell extracts. In this study, we expressed dS3 fused to the Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP) in T24 human bladder cells in order to accelerate the repair of 8-oxoG in vivo. Limiting dilution and Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) were used in an effort to isolate cells with elevated EGFP-dS3 expression; however, the cells that were isolated invariably had severe growth impairment. Curiously, EGFP-dS3 expression was slightly increased after recovering cells from liquid nitrogen, but it was not possible under those conditions to achieve a significant acceleration of 8-oxoG repair. The data confirm and extend our previous results obtained with Chinese hamster CHO cells and indicate that elevated expression of dS3 may be toxic to at least some types of mammalian cells, thus limiting its use in vivo as a protective factor against oxidative DNA damage.