C3-C12 non-methane hydrocarbons in subtropical Hong Kong: spatial-temporal variations, source-receptor relationships and photochemical reactivity.

Annual data on C3-C12 non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) from different areas in Hong Kong are analyzed to examine the spatial distribution, seasonal variation, source-receptor relationships, and photochemical reactivity of NMHCs in subtropical Hong Kong. As expected, the highest levels of NMHCs were found at roadsides, and the lowest levels were observed at a rural site. For seasonal variations, the rural site showed the lowest NMHCs levels in summer, but the roadside site gave a different picture, with the highest NMHCs levels in summer. This was believed to be due to the strong evaporation of alkanes in the hot season. With the exception of isoprene, NMHCs levels in Hong Kong were generally low compared to those of other overseas cities. Principal component analysis suggested that while the isoprene at the rural site mainly came from biogenic emissions, vehicular emissions were the major source in the urban areas, especially at roadsides. Ratios of hydrocarbons with different reactivities were also analyzed to evaluate the ages of air masses and emission ratios. A high toluene-to-benzene ratio at roadsides was due to the widespread use of aromatic-rich unleaded fuels in Hong Kong. The ratios of total NMHCs to nitrogen oxides were found to be 2 to 10 (ppbC/ppbv) indicating that the formation of photochemical ozone (O3) in Hong Kong is controlled by the levels of NMHCs. The reactivity of hydroxyl radicals (OH) and O3 formation potential of NMHCs were evaluated using the propene-equivalent concentration and maximum incremental reactivity. Isoprene was found to have the highest OH-reactivity and O3 formation potential at the rural site, while toluene was the most important contributor to the two parameters at the roadside site. These results are valuable for the understanding of O3 pollution in Hong Kong and the formulation of an effective strategy to manage O3.

A NASBA method to detect high- and low-pathogenicity H5 avian influenza viruses.

Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) allows the rapid amplification of specific regions of nucleic acid obtained from a diverse range of sources. It is especially suitable for amplifying RNA sequences. A NASBA technique was developed that allows the detection of avian influenza A subtype H5 from allantoic fluid harvested from inoculated chick embryos. The amplified viral RNA is detected by electrochemiluminescence. The described NASBA technique is a specific, rapid, and sensitive method of detection of influenza A subtype H5 viruses. More importantly, it can be used to distinguish high- and low-pathogenicity strains of the H5 subtype.

On the local and regional influence on ground-level ozone concentrations in Hong Kong.

Hong Kong is a densely populated city situated in the fast developing Pearl River Delta of southern China. In this study, the recent data on ozone (O3) and related air pollutants obtained at three sites in Hong Kong are analyzed to show the variations of O3 in urban, sub-urban and rural areas and the possible regional influences. Highest monthly averaged O3 was found at a northeastern rural site and lowest O3 level was observed at an urban site. The levels of NOx, CO, SO2 and PM10 showed a different spatial pattern with the highest level in the urban site and lowest at the rural site. Analysis of chemical species ratios such as SO2/NOx and CO/NOx indicated that the sites were under the influences of local and regional emissions to varying extents reflecting the characteristics of emission sources surround the respective sites. Seasonal pattern of O3 is examined. Low O3 level was found in summer and elevated levels occurred in autumn and spring. The latter appears different from the previous result obtained in 1996 indicating a single maximum occurring in autumn. Principal component analysis was used to further elucidate the relationships of air pollutants at each site. As expected, the O3 variation in the northeastern rural area was largely determined by regional chemical and transport processes, while the O3 variability at the southwestern suburban and urban sites were more influenced by local emissions. Despite the large difference in O3 levels across the sites, total potential ozone (O3+NO2) showed little variability. Cases of high O3 episodes were presented and elevated O3 levels were formed under the influence of tropical cyclone bringing in conditions of intense sunlight, high temperature and light winds. Elevated O3 levels were also found to correlate with enhanced ratio of SO2 to NOx, suggesting influence of regional emissions from the adjacent Pearl River Delta region.

Multi-lipofection efficiently transfected genes into astrocytes in primary culture.

This study demonstrated that liposome-mediated transfection - lipofection - is suitable for delivering genes into astrocytes. By repeatedly lipofecting the same astrocyte cultures, a process we call multi-lipofection, the transfection efficiency of the beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) gene was improved from 2.6+/-0.6 to 17. 4+/-1.1%. This is the highest efficiency ever reported in gene-transfer with Lipofectin(R) in a primary culture of mouse cerebral cortical astrocytes. Furthermore, multi-lipofection did not cause observable disturbance to astrocytes as indicated by insignificant changes in the glial fibrillary acidic protein content in the cultures. In order to demonstrate that the transfected gene achieved a physiologically relevant expression level, a plasmid containing the pEF-hsp70 protein gene was lipofected into astrocytes. This produced colonies of astrocytes showing an increased resistance to heat-induced cell death. A similar experiment was performed with the glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) gene. Control astrocytes had no detectable GDNF. In the transfected astrocytes, the GDNF protein could be identified intracellularly by immunocytochemistry. Western blot analysis revealed, as compared to astrocytes with one lipofection, a 2.9-fold increase of GDNF with four lipofections. GDNF remained detectable in astrocytes 2 weeks after four lipofections. Thus, multi-lipofection provides a mild and efficient means of delivering foreign genes into astrocytes in a primary culture, making astrocytes good candidate vehicle cells for gene/cell therapy in the CNS.

Surfactant therapy restores gas exchange in lung injury due to paraquat intoxication in rats.

Paraquat is a weed killer which causes often fatal lung damage in humans and other animals. There is evidence that the pulmonary surfactant system is involved in the pathophysiology of respiratory failure after paraquat intoxication and, therefore, the possible therapeutic effect of intratracheal surfactant administration on gas exchange in rats with progressive lung injury induced by paraquat poisoning was studied. In one group of rats, the time course of the development of lung injury due to paraquat intoxication was characterized. In a second group of rats, 72 h after paraquat intoxication, the animals underwent mechanical ventilation and only those animals in which the arterial oxygen tension/inspiratory oxygen fraction (Pa,O2/FI,O2) decreased to below 20 kPa (150 mmHg) received exogenous surfactant (200 mg x kg(-1) body weight). Within 3 days the rats in group 1 developed progressive respiratory failure, demonstrated not only by impaired gas exchange and lung mechanics but also by increased minimal surface tension and increased protein concentration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In group 2, intratracheal surfactant administration increased Pa,O2/FI,O2 significantly within 5 min (14.4+/-2.4 kPa (108+/-18 mmHg)) to (55.2+/-53 kPa (414+/-40 mmHg)) and sustained this level for at least 2 h. It is concluded that intratracheal surfactant administration is a promising approach in the treatment of severe respiratory failure caused by paraquat poisoning.

Bronchoalveolar lavage with a diluted surfactant suspension prior to surfactant instillation improves the effectiveness of surfactant therapy in experimental acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) with a diluted surfactant suspension prior to surfactant instillation prevents the only transient improvement in lung function as reported after surfactant instillation in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). DESIGN: Randomized, prospective, experimental study. SETTING: Laboratory and animal facility of a large university. MATERIALS: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (280 +/- 30 g). INTERVENTIONS: All animals underwent repetitive whole lung saline lavage to induce acute lung injury. Then, animals were randomly divided into seven study groups: the first group received surfactant (150 mg/ kg) within 10 min after the last lavage (early treatment), whereas in the other six groups mechanical ventilation was continued for 3 h before treatment (late treatment). Treatment consisted of: surfactant instillation at a dose of 150 mg/kg; at a dose of 250 mg/kg; BAL with saline; BAL with a diluted surfactant suspension (2.5 mg/ml); BAL with saline, immediately followed by surfactant instillation (150 mg/kg) and BAL with a diluted surfactant suspension (2.5 mg/kg), immediately followed by surfactant instillation (150 mg/kg). MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Blood gases were measured for 6 h and then BAL was performed to measure the protein concentration and surface tension properties. Mean PaO2 values increased immediately after surfactant instillation to pre-lavage values but remained stable only in the group that received surfactant immediately after the lavage procedure and the group that underwent BAL with a diluted surfactant suspension prior to surfactant instillation. CONCLUSION: BAL with a diluted surfactant suspension prior to surfactant instillation at a later time point in lung injury resulted in a stable improvement of lung function. This improvement is comparable with the results seen after surfactant instillation immediately after lung lavage.

Cerebellar granule cells express a specific isoform of agrin that lacks the acetylcholine receptor aggregating activity.

Agrin is a synapse-organizing molecule that mediates nerve-induced aggregation of acetylcholine receptors and other postsynaptic components at the developing and regenerating vertebrate neuromuscular junctions. Several lines of evidence indicate that agrin might play a similar role in directing the organization of postsynaptic specifications of neuron-neuron synapse formation. Here we used immunological methods and polymerase chain reaction to identify the expression of agrin protein and alternatively spliced mRNA isoforms in the culture of rat granule cells. Anti-agrin polyclonal antibody labeled the cultured granule cells and it detected a protein of over 200 kDa in size from the lysate of the cultured cells. Analysis by polymerase chain reaction showed that the granule cells in culture expressed predominantly the B0 isoform of agrin mRNA. When granule cells were co-cultured with primary chick myotubes, there was no detectable effect on the aggregation of acetylcholine receptors on the surface of the myotubes. These results show that the cerebellar granule cells, similar to motor neurons in vitro, express and secrete agrin but it lacks the acetylcholine receptor aggregating activity.

High-risk surgical acute renal failure treated by continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration: metabolic control and outcome in sixty patients.

The outcome and metabolic control was studied in 60 critically ill patients with acute renal failure (ARF) treated by continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration (CAVHD) in a single surgical intensive care unit. Mean age (+/- SEM) was 60 +/- 2 years with a male predominance (80%). The majority of patients required mechanical ventilation (83%) and/or vasopressor support (70%) and suffered from multiorgan failure [mean number of organ system failures 3.3 +/- 0.3 (range 1-6)]. CAVHD resulted in a rapid decline of serum urea and creatinine levels during the first 72 h (urea 47.4 +/- 2.3 to 30.3 +/- 1.4 mmol/l, p < 0.05, and creatinine 572 +/- 27 to 361 +/- 23 mumol/l, p < 0.05); thereafter, controlled steady-state levels were achieved with serum urea levels kept below 30 mmol/l with full protein alimentation and often despite hypotension, surgery and septicemia. Significant electrolyte derangements could be easily corrected and maintained within normal limits. Bicarbonate homeostasis could be restored within 48 h in patients with severe metabolic acidosis (HCO3- < 20 mmol/l) with use of bicarbonate as a buffering anion (17 +/- 0.5 to 23.2 +/- 0.6, p < 0.05). CAVHD allowed rapid removal of excess body and lung water (up to 5 liters/day) without hemodynamic instability. Despite a mean pretreatment APACHE II score of 26.5, 26 patients (43%) survived until discharge from the intensive care unit, of whom 23 (38%) survived to leave hospital. Requirement of mechanical ventilation or vasopressor support, higher APACHE II scores and septicemia were all associated with a poor prognosis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Acute dialytic support for the critically ill: intermittent hemodialysis versus continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration.

There is still debate about whether continuous renal replacement therapy is superior to intermittent hemodialysis (IHD) as dialytic support for the critically ill patient with acute renal failure, mainly because of lack of comparative data. We sought to address this issue by reviewing the medical records of such patients admitted to a single surgical intensive care unit treated with either continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration (CAVHD) or IHD between January 1, 1986, and August 31, 1993. Of 94 consecutive patients who received dialytic support for severe acute renal failure, 34 (36%) patients were treated with IHD and 60 (64%) patients with CAVHD. The patients were comparable in terms of age or gender and represented a similar case mix. Patients treated with CAVHD were more severely ill as manifested by a lower mean arterial pressure (75 +/- 3 vs. 86 +/- 5 mm Hg; p < 0.05), higher Apache II score (26.5 +/- 0.5 vs. 22.2 +/- 0.3; p < 0.05), and a higher number of organ system failures (3.4 +/ 0.2 vs. 2.6 +/- 0.3; p < 0.05). Despite greater illness severity and a higher probability of death (55 +/- 2.6 vs. 33 +/- 2.5%; p < 0.0001), in those treated with CAVHD, no difference in outcome was observed between groups: CAVHD 26/60 (43%) vs. IHD 20/34 (59%; NS). The mean Apache II score of patients treated with CAVHD who survived was similar to that of patients treated with IHD who died (24.5 +/- 0.3 vs. 24.2 +/- 0.4; NS).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

In vivo evaluation of the inhibitory capacity of human plasma on exogenous surfactant function.

OBJECTIVE: The adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) are characterized by high permeability pulmonary edema which contains plasma-derived proteins inhibiting pulmonary surfactant function. Currently, discussion continues as to what dose of surfactant is required for treatment of these syndromes. DESIGN: The purpose of this study was to investigate the amount of exogenous surfactant needed to overcome the inhibitory components in human plasma. Male adult rats suffering from respiratory failure due to surfactant depletion after whole-lung lavage received human plasma (4 ml/kg body weight) mixed with surfactant at different concentrations, intratracheally. Rats receiving surfactant only at different concentrations served as controls. Blood gas analysis was performed. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: It was demonstrated that plasma (4 ml/kg-273 mg plasma proteins/kg) mixed with surfactant at 300 mg/kg was able to increase and maintain PaO2 at normal values. Plasma mixed with surfactant at 100 mg/kg, after initial restoration of blood gases, showed deterioration of PaO2 values. Plasma mixed with surfactant at a dose of 50 mg/kg did not improve PaO2 whereas surfactant at 50 mg/kg, without plasma, restored blood gases to pre-lavage values. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that approximately 1 mg surfactant phospholipids is required to overcome the inhibitory effect of approximately 1 mg plasma proteins. For clinical practice this means that an excess of surfactant should be given, or repeatedly be substituted ("titrated") at low concentrations, until blood gases improve.

Surfactant treatment of respiratory failure induced by hydrochloric acid aspiration in rats.

BACKGROUND: The surfactant system seems to be involved in the pathophysiology of respiratory failure caused by hydrochloric acid (HCl) aspiration. This study was an investigation of the effect of different treatment strategies using an exogenous surfactant preparation on lung function of rats suffering from respiratory failure after intratracheal HCl instillation. METHODS: In rats anesthetized with halothane, nitrous oxide, and oxygen, tracheotomy was performed and the lungs were mechanically ventilated. Respiratory failure was induced by intratracheal instillation of HCl (0.1 N, 3 ml/kg). After the PaO2 decreased to < 200 mmHg, the animals were randomly divided into five groups. Group I received no treatment; group II received a natural surfactant preparation intratracheally (200 mg/kg); group III underwent bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) with saline, followed by surfactant treatment (200 mg/kg); and groups IV and V underwent BAL with saline and a diluted surfactant suspension (3.3 mg/ml in 30 ml/kg), respectively. Groups IV and V received a second and third BAL 60 and 120 min after the first lavage. Blood gas analysis and protein measurements in BAL fluids were performed. RESULTS: Gas exchange improved in Groups III and V only. Protein concentrations were high in all BAL fluids. In the rats receiving BAL three times (groups IV and V), a decrease in protein concentration was observed. CONCLUSIONS: From these results, it was concluded that plasma-derived proteins (which are known to inhibit surfactant function) are washed out of the alveoli by BAL, resulting in improved efficacy of surfactant treatment.

Prevention of respiratory failure after hydrochloric acid aspiration by intratracheal surfactant instillation in rats.

Because the surfactant system probably is involved in the pathophysiology of respiratory failure caused by hydrochloric acid (HCl) aspiration, we investigated the effects of different ventilation strategies and intratracheal surfactant instillation at different time intervals on the course of pulmonary gas exchange after HCl aspiration in rats. In this study rats were anesthetized and mechanically ventilated via a tracheostomy. Respiratory failure was induced by intratracheal instillation of 3 mL/kg 0.1 N HCl. Animals (n = 49) were divided into nine groups: Groups 1 and 2 through 9 were ventilated with peak airway pressure/positive end-expiratory pressure of 14/2 and 26/6 cm H2O, respectively; Groups 3 and 4 received surfactant (200 mg/kg) intratracheally, 1 and 10 min after HCl aspiration; Groups 5 and 6 received saline, 1 and 10 min after HCl aspiration; Groups 7 and 8 received surfactant, 60 and 90 min after HCl aspiration; Group 9 received saline instead of HCl. Gas exchange deteriorated in Groups 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8, whereas respiratory failure could be prevented in Groups 3 and 4. After deterioration of gas exchange, surfactant treatment prevented further decrease of PaO2 values in Group 7, whereas no effect on gas exchange was observed in Group 8; intratracheal instillation of saline had no effect on gas exchange (Group 9). These results suggest that surfactant should be given as early as possible after aspiration of gastric contents to prevent development of respiratory failure.

Oral immunization with polyvalent bacterial lysate and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae: influence on interferon-gamma and PMN elastase concentrations in murine bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

We recently demonstrated that oral immunization with a polyvalent bacterial lysate (Paspat oral) significantly reduces mortality rates in mice, infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae or influenza A virus. In this study it is demonstrated that oral immunization with the same bacterial lysate reduces the intrapulmonary inflammatory reaction to infection with S. pneumoniae, assessed by measurement of PMN elastase in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that oral immunization with Paspat oral increases intrapulmonary IFN-gamma concentrations.

Acute respiratory failure during pneumonia induced by Sendai virus.

In this study a model of acute respiratory failure due to viral pneumonia in rats, closely resembling ARDS, is presented. Severe respiratory failure with lethal outcome in four days was induced by infection concentrated Sendai virus aerosol. This model permits evaluation of different therapeutical approaches for improving gas exchange during ARDS. Furthermore, preliminary results of surfactant substitution therapy in this model are presented.

Intratracheal surfactant administration restores gas exchange in experimental adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with viral pneumonia.

The effect of intratracheal surfactant administration was studied in rats with adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with infection with nebulized Sendai virus. Thirty-six hours after infection, animals (n = 7) showed severely impaired gas exchange and acidosis during artificial ventilation (PaO2 = 152.2 +/- 18.7, PaCO2 = 65.3 +/- 19.2, pH = 7.26 +/- 0.11) with a pressure-controlled mode, standard frequency of 35/min, peak airway pressure of 15 cm H2O (15/0), inspiratory/expiratory ratio of 1:2, and F1O2 = 1. Gas exchange improved (P = 0.02) with increased ventilator pressures with PEEP (25/4). Forty-eight hours after infection, blood gas tensions could no longer be significantly improved by these same ventilator settings (PaO2 = 123.8 +/- 31.0, PaCO2 = 95.1 +/- 43.6, pH = 7.12 +/- 0.16, n = 9). At this time, surfactant replacement dramatically increased arterial oxygenation within 5 min (PaO2 = 389.4 +/- 79.9) and resulted in a fourfold increase in PaO2 within 2 h. It is concluded that intratracheal surfactant administration is a promising approach in the treatment of respiratory failure during adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with viral pneumonia.

Protection against influenza A virus infection in mice by oral immunization with a polyvalent bacterial lysate.

A study is presented which investigated whether oral immunization with a polyvalent bacterial lysate (Paspat oral) can sufficiently enhance cell-mediated defense mechanisms to protect mice against influenza A virus infection. It was found that oral immunization reduced mortality due to influenza A infection with 15-70%, depending on the quantity of virus administered and and the moment of infection. Cyclosporin A severely reduced the protective effect of oral immunization, suggesting that a major effect of oral immunization in these studies is T-cell activation. The effect of oral immunization on macrophageal activity was evaluated by measuring cyclic-AMP in alveolar macrophages (AMs) obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage. Before infection, basal activity levels of AMs in immunized mice were significantly lower than in controls. Five days after infection, however, basal activity level of AMs in immunized mice was significantly higher than AM activity in controls. Stimulation of AMs with PGE2 significantly reduced cellular activity in both groups, before and after infection. However, cellular activity of AMs from immunized animals was less reduced than cellular activity of control macrophages. Activity of AMs of immunized animals was significantly more reduced by histamine than activity of control macrophages. It is concluded that oral immunization with Paspat oral stimulates T-cell-dependent immune mechanisms, resulting in protection against influenza A virus infection in mice.

Oral immunization with a polyvalent bacterial lysate can reduce mortality by infection with S. pneumoniae or influenza A in mice.

We investigated the effect of oral immunization in of mice which were exposed to S. pneumoniae or influenza A. The results suggest that oral immunization reduces the mortality rate. We believe that this effect is partially due to nonspecific defense mechanisms.