Management of hyperinflammation in COVID-19 patients.

In response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, the immune system physiologically upregulates to try to clear the virus from the body; failure to compensate for this inflammatory response with an anti-inflammatory response leads to dysregulation of the immune system that ultimately leads to a situation of uncontrolled hyperinflammation called cytokine storm. This cytokine storm can cause ARDS or multi-organ failure leading to patient death. This review exposes the different mechanisms of the inflammatory response in COVID-19 infection and the therapeutic options to treat this process.

Prior influenza vaccine is not a risk factor for bacterial coinfection in patients admitted to the ICU due to severe influenza / La vacuna previa contra la influenza no es un factor de riesgo de coinfección bacteriana en pacientes ingresados en la UCI por influenza severa

Objective To determine whether the prior usage of the flu vaccine is a risk factor for bacterial co-infection in patients with severe influenza. Design This was a retrospective observational cohort study of subjects admitted to the ICU. A propensity score matching, and logistic regression adjusted for potential confounders were carried out to evaluate the association between prior influenza vaccination and bacterial co-infection. Settings 184 ICUs in Spain due to severe influenza. Patients Patients included in the Spanish prospective flu registry. Interventions Flu vaccine prior to the hospital admission. Results A total of 4175 subjects were included in the study. 489 (11.7%) received the flu vaccine prior to develop influenza infection. Prior vaccinated patients were older 71 [61–78], and predominantly male 65.4%, with at least one comorbid condition 88.5%. Prior vaccination was not associated with bacterial co-infection in the logistic regression model (OR: 1.017; 95%CI 0.803–1.288; p=0.885). After matching, the average treatment effect of prior influenza vaccine on bacterial co-infection was not statistically significant when assessed by propensity score matching (p=0.87), nearest neighbor matching (p=0.59) and inverse probability weighting (p=0.99). Conclusions No association was identified between prior influenza vaccine and bacterial coinfection in patients admitted to the ICU due to severe influenza. Post influenza vaccination studies are necessary to continue evaluating the possible benefits (AU)

Objetivo Determinar si el uso previo de la vacuna antigripal es un factor de riesgo para coinfección bacteriana en pacientes con influenza grave. Diseño Este fue un estudio de cohorte observacional retrospectivo de sujetos ingresados en la UCI. Se realizó un emparejamiento por puntuación de propensión y una regresión logística ajustada para posibles factores de confusión para evaluar la asociación entre el antecedente de vacunación contra la gripe y la coinfección bacteriana. Ámbito Ciento ochenta y cuatro ingresos en UCI españolas por gripe grave. Pacientes Pacientes incluidos en el registro prospectivo español de gripe. Intervenciones Vacuna antigripal previa al ingreso hospitalario. Resultados Se incluyó en el estudio un total de 4.175 sujetos. Recibieron la vacuna contra la influenza antes de desarrollar la infección por influenza 489 (11,7%). Los pacientes previamente vacunados eran mayores de 71 años (RIC 61-78), predominantemente varones (65,4%) y con al menos una condición comórbida (88,5%). La vacunación previa no se asoció con la coinfección bacteriana en el modelo de regresión logística (OR: 1,017; IC95% 0,803-1,288; p=0,885). Después del emparejamiento, el efecto promedio del tratamiento del antecedente de vacuna contra la influenza sobre la coinfección bacteriana no fue estadísticamente significativo cuando se evaluó mediante el emparejamiento por puntuación de propensión (p=0,87), por emparejamiento del vecino más cercano (p=0,59) y mediante la ponderación de probabilidad inversa (p=0,99). Conclusiones No se identificó asociación entre el antecedente de vacuna antigripal y coinfección bacteriana en pacientes ingresados en UCI por influenza severa. Más estudios para evaluar los efectos de la vacunación contra la gripe son necesarios para continuar evaluando los posibles beneficios (AU)

Prior influenza vaccine is not a risk factor for bacterial coinfection in patients admitted to the ICU due to severe influenza.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the prior usage of the flu vaccine is a risk factor for bacterial co-infection in patients with severe influenza. DESIGN: This was a retrospective observational cohort study of subjects admitted to the ICU. A propensity score matching, and logistic regression adjusted for potential confounders were carried out to evaluate the association between prior influenza vaccination and bacterial co-infection. SETTINGS: 184 ICUs in Spain due to severe influenza. PATIENTS: Patients included in the Spanish prospective flu registry. INTERVENTIONS: Flu vaccine prior to the hospital admission. RESULTS: A total of 4175 subjects were included in the study. 489 (11.7%) received the flu vaccine prior to develop influenza infection. Prior vaccinated patients were older 71 [61-78], and predominantly male 65.4%, with at least one comorbid condition 88.5%. Prior vaccination was not associated with bacterial co-infection in the logistic regression model (OR: 1.017; 95%CI 0.803-1.288; p=0.885). After matching, the average treatment effect of prior influenza vaccine on bacterial co-infection was not statistically significant when assessed by propensity score matching (p=0.87), nearest neighbor matching (p=0.59) and inverse probability weighting (p=0.99). CONCLUSIONS: No association was identified between prior influenza vaccine and bacterial coinfection in patients admitted to the ICU due to severe influenza. Post influenza vaccination studies are necessary to continue evaluating the possible benefits.

Manejo de las complicaciones infecciosas asociadas con la infección por coronavirus en pacientes graves ingresados en UCI / Management of infectious complications associated with coronavirus infection in severe patients admitted to ICU

Las infecciones se han convertido en una de las principales complicaciones de los pacientes con neumonía grave por SARS-CoV-2 que ingresan en UCI. El deficiente estado inmunitario, el desarrollo frecuente de fracaso orgánico con necesidad de tratamientos de soporte invasivos y las estancias prolongadas en áreas estructurales en gran medida saturadas de enfermos son factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de infecciones. El Grupo de Trabajo de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Sepsis GTEIS de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva y Unidades Coronarias SEMICYUC enfatiza la importancia de las medidas de prevención de infecciones relacionadas con los cuidados sanitarios, y de la detección y tratamiento precoz de las principales infecciones en el paciente con infección por SARS-CoV-2. La coinfección bacteriana, las infecciones respiratorias relacionadas con la ventilación mecánica, bacteriemia relacionada con el catéter, infección del tracto urinario asociado a dispositivo e infecciones oportunistas son desarrolladas. (AU)

Infections have become one of the main complications of patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia admitted in ICU. Poor immune status, frequent development of organic failure requiring invasive supportive treatments, and prolonged ICU length of stay in saturated structural areas of patients are risk factors for infection development. The Working Group on Infectious Diseases and Sepsis GTEIS of the Spanish Society of Intensive Medicine and Coronary Units SEMICYUC emphasizes the importance of infection prevention measures related to health care, the detection and early treatment of major infections in the patient with SARS-CoV-2 infections. Bacterial co-infection, respiratory infections related to mechanical ventilation, catheter-related bacteremia, device-associated urinary tract infection and opportunistic infections are review in the document. (AU)

Management of infectious complications associated with coronavirus infection in severe patients admitted to ICU.

Infections have become one of the main complications of patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia admitted in ICU. Poor immune status, frequent development of organic failure requiring invasive supportive treatments, and prolonged ICU length of stay in saturated structural areas of patients are risk factors for infection development. The Working Group on Infectious Diseases and Sepsis GTEIS of the Spanish Society of Intensive Medicine and Coronary Units SEMICYUC emphasizes the importance of infection prevention measures related to health care, the detection and early treatment of major infections in the patient with SARS-CoV-2 infections. Bacterial co-infection, respiratory infections related to mechanical ventilation, catheter-related bacteremia, device-associated urinary tract infection and opportunistic infections are review in the document.

Prior influenza vaccine is not a risk factor for bacterial coinfection in patients admitted to the ICU due to severe influenza.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the prior usage of the flu vaccine is a risk factor for bacterial co-infection in patients with severe influenza. DESIGN: This was a retrospective observational cohort study of subjects admitted to the ICU. A propensity score matching, and logistic regression adjusted for potential confounders were carried out to evaluate the association between prior influenza vaccination and bacterial co-infection. SETTINGS: 184 ICUs in Spain due to severe influenza. PATIENTS: Patients included in the Spanish prospective flu registry. INTERVENTIONS: Flu vaccine prior to the hospital admission. RESULTS: A total of 4175 subjects were included in the study. 489 (11.7%) received the flu vaccine prior to develop influenza infection. Prior vaccinated patients were older 71 [61-78], and predominantly male 65.4%, with at least one comorbid condition 88.5%. Prior vaccination was not associated with bacterial co-infection in the logistic regression model (OR: 1.017; 95%CI 0.803-1.288; p=0.885). After matching, the average treatment effect of prior influenza vaccine on bacterial co-infection was not statistically significant when assessed by propensity score matching (p=0.87), nearest neighbor matching (p=0.59) and inverse probability weighting (p=0.99). CONCLUSIONS: No association was identified between prior influenza vaccine and bacterial coinfection in patients admitted to the ICU due to severe influenza. Post influenza vaccination studies are necessary to continue evaluating the possible benefits.

Management of infectious complications associated with coronavirus infection in severe patients admitted to ICU. / Manejo de las complicaciones infecciosas asociadas con la infección por coronavirus en pacientes graves ingresados en UCI.

Infections have become one of the main complications of patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia admitted in ICU. Poor immune status, frequent development of organic failure requiring invasive supportive treatments, and prolonged ICU length of stay in saturated structural areas of patients are risk factors for infection development. The Working Group on Infectious Diseases and Sepsis GTEIS of the Spanish Society of Intensive Medicine and Coronary Units SEMICYUC emphasizes the importance of infection prevention measures related to health care, the detection and early treatment of major infections in the patient with SARS-CoV-2 infections. Bacterial co-infection, respiratory infections related to mechanical ventilation, catheter-related bacteremia, device-associated urinary tract infection and opportunistic infections are review in the document.

[Management of infectious complications associated with coronavirus infection in severe patients admitted to ICU]. / Manejo de las complicaciones infecciosas asociadas con la infección por coronavirus en pacientes graves ingresados en UCI.

Infections have become one of the main complications of patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia admitted in ICU. Poor immune status, frequent development of organic failure requiring invasive supportive treatments, and prolonged ICU length of stay in saturated structural areas of patients are risk factors for infection development. The Working Group on Infectious Diseases and Sepsis GTEIS of the Spanish Society of Intensive Medicine and Coronary Units SEMICYUC emphasizes the importance of infection prevention measures related to health care, the detection and early treatment of major infections in the patient with SARS-CoV-2 infections. Bacterial co-infection, respiratory infections related to mechanical ventilation, catheter-related bacteremia, device-associated urinary tract infection and opportunistic infections are review in the document.

[Pharmacological treatment of COVID-19: Narrative review of the Working Group in Infectious Diseases and Sepsis (GTEIS) and the Working Groups in Transfusions and Blood Products (GTTH)]. / Tratamiento farmacológico de la COVID-19: revisión narrativa de los Grupos de Trabajo de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Sepsis (GTEIS) y del Grupo de Trabajo de Transfusiones Hemoderivados (GTTH).

Infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, known as COVID-19 (COronaVIrus Disease-19) was initially detected in China in December 2019, and has subsequently spread rapidly throughout the world, to the point that on March 11 the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that the outbreak could be defined as a pandemic. COVID-19 disease ranges from mild flu-like episodes to other serious and even life-threatening conditions, mainly due to acute respiratory failure. These patients are frequently admitted to our Intensive Care Units in relation to acute respiratory distress syndrome. The lack of a treatment based on scientific evidence has led to the use of different management guidelines, in many cases with rapid changes in the applied protocols. Recent reviews in reputed journals have underscored the lack of proven therapies and the need for clinical trials to establish clear and objective treatment guidelines. The present study provides an update on the currently applied treatment, and intends to offer help in relation to daily care, without seeking to replace the protocols adopted in each individual center.

[Pharmacological treatment of COVID-19: Narrative review of the Working Group in Infectious Diseases and Sepsis (GTEIS) and the Working Groups in Transfusions and Blood Products (GTTH)]. / Tratamiento farmacológico de la COVID-19: revisión narrativa de los Grupos de Trabajo de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Sepsis (GTEIS) y del Grupo de Trabajo de Transfusiones Hemoderivados (GTTH).

Infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, known as COVID-19 (COronaVIrus Disease-19) was initially detected in China in December 2019, and has subsequently spread rapidly throughout the world, to the point that on March 11 the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that the outbreak could be defined as a pandemic. COVID-19 disease ranges from mild flu-like episodes to other serious and even life-threatening conditions, mainly due to acute respiratory failure. These patients are frequently admitted to our Intensive Care Units in relation to acute respiratory distress syndrome. The lack of a treatment based on scientific evidence has led to the use of different management guidelines, in many cases with rapid changes in the applied protocols. Recent reviews in reputed journals have underscored the lack of proven therapies and the need for clinical trials to establish clear and objective treatment guidelines. The present study provides an update on the currently applied treatment, and intends to offer help in relation to daily care, without seeking to replace the protocols adopted in each individual center.

Prognostic value of plasma pentraxin 3 levels in patients with septic shock admitted to intensive care.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the usefulness of a new marker, pentraxin, as a prognostic marker in septic shock patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Single-centre prospective observational study that included all consecutive patients 18 years or older who were admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with septic shock. Serum levels of procalcitonin (PCT), C-reactive protein (CRP) and pentraxin (PTX3) were measured on ICU admission. RESULTS: Seventy-five septic shock patients were included in the study. The best predictors of in-hospital mortality were the severity scores: SAPS II (AUC = 0.81), SOFA (AUC = 0.79) and APACHE II (AUC = 0.73). The ROC curve for PTX3 (ng/mL) yielded an AUC of 0.70, higher than the AUC for PCT (0.43) and CRP (0.48), but lower than lactate (0.79). Adding PTX3 to the logistic model increased the predictive capacity in relation to SAPS II, SOFA and APACHE II for in-hospital mortality (AUC 0.814, 0.795, and 0.741, respectively). In crude regression models, significant associations were found between in-hospital mortality and PTX3. This positive association increased after adjusting for age, sex and immunosuppression: adjusted OR T3 for PTX3 = 7.83, 95% CI 1.35-45.49, linear P trend = 0.024. CONCLUSION: Our results support the prognostic value of a single determination of plasma PTX3 as a predictor of hospital mortality in septic shock patients.

Simulación clínica en el paciente politraumatizado. Aplicación en estudiantes de Medicina / Clinical simulation in the polytraumatized patient. Application in medical students

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Static Cold Storage vs Ex Vivo Machine Perfusion: Results From a Comparative Study on Renal Transplant Outcome in a Controlled Donation After Circulatory Death Program.

INTRODUCTION: We aimed to evaluate if ex vivo machine perfusion could minimize the negative impact of cold ischemia on those renal grafts obtained from controlled donation after circulatory death (cDCD). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Prospective observational paired study of kidney transplants from cDCD performed in our center. The kidney from each pair preserved on ice was transplanted first within the first few hours following procurement, while the contralateral kidney was machine-perfused with a LifePort device (Organ Recovery Systems, Brussels, Belgium) and transplanted the following day. RESULTS: A total of 12 cDCDs were included. No differences were observed in delayed graft dysfunction or graft survival between the 2 groups. CONCLUSION: The use of ex vivo perfusion devices is simple and they do not require any large infrastructural or high economic investments, considering the fact that it allows a better selection of recipients and viable organs no longer need to be discarded because of prolonged warm ischemia times.

Metaanálisis de los efectos del suero salino en la mortalidad en cuidados intensivos / Meta-analysis of the effects of normal saline on mortality in intensive care

Introducción y objetivo: Evaluar, mediante un metaanálisis, el efecto del suero salino sobre la mortalidad en los pacientes de cuidados intensivos, cuando se compara su uso con el de cristaloides balanceados. Material y método: Se ha realizado un metaanálisis de ensayos clínicos controlados, aleatorizados y estudios prospectivos secuenciales en el tiempo, publicados, que evaluaron la mortalidad del suero salino en enfermos ingresados en unidades de cuidados intensivos. Se llevó a cabo una búsqueda electrónica en Medline, Embase, biblioteca Cochrane, ISI Proceedings y Web of Science y una búsqueda manual sobre las referencias seleccionadas. La extracción de datos fue realizada de forma independiente por 2 investigadores. Las discrepancias se resolvieron por consenso en el grupo de trabajo. El cálculo de la OR y su intervalo de confianza se realizó ponderando por el inverso de la varianza. La heterogeneidad se evaluó mediante I2. El sesgo de publicación se valoró mediante funnel plot y test de Egger. Resultados: Se seleccionaron 8 artículos para el metaanálisis de mortalidad, que incluían un total de 20.684 pacientes. Se objetivó una asociación entre el uso de suero salino y la mortalidad en los enfermos de cuidados intensivos (OR 1,0972; IC 95%:1,0049-1,1979) cuando se comparaba con el uso de cristaloides balanceados. No se encontró evidencia de sesgo de publicación (prueba de Egger p=0,5349). En el análisis de sensibilidad ninguno de los estudios modificó sustancialmente el resultado global si se eliminaba del metaanálisis. Conclusiones: Es posible que exista un aumento de la mortalidad asociada al empleo de suero salino en los pacientes ingresados en cuidados intensivos cuando se compara con el empleo de cristaloides balanceados

Introduction and objective: To evaluate, by means of a meta-analysis, the effect of normal saline on mortality in intensive care patients, when compared with the use of balanced crystalloids. Material and method: Published controlled clinical trials, randomised and sequential prospective studies in time, evaluating the mortality when physiological saline was used in patients admitted to intensive care units. Electronic search was performed in Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, ISI Proceedings, and Web of Science, as well as a manual search of selected references. An independent evaluation was performed by 2 investigators. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus in the working group. Contingency tables were performed, and the OR with confidence intervals of each study were obtained. Heterogeneity was assessed by I2. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plot and Egger test. Results: A total of 8 articles were selected for the meta-analysis of mortality, which included a total of 20,684 patients. A significant association was observed between the use of saline and mortality in intensive care patients (OR 1.0972; 95% CI 1.0049-1.1979), when compared to the use of balanced crystalloids. No statistical evidence of publication bias (Egger, P=.5349) was found. In the sensitivity analysis, none of the studies substantially modified the overall outcome if it was eliminated from the meta-analysis. Conclusions: There may be an increase in mortality associated with the use of saline in patients admitted to intensive care when comparing with the use of balanced crystalloids

Meta-analysis of the effects of normal saline on mortality in intensive care. / Metaanálisis de los efectos del suero salino en la mortalidad en cuidados intensivos.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: To evaluate, by means of a meta-analysis, the effect of normal saline on mortality in intensive care patients, when compared with the use of balanced crystalloids. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Published controlled clinical trials, randomised and sequential prospective studies in time, evaluating the mortality when physiological saline was used in patients admitted to intensive care units. Electronic search was performed in Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, ISI Proceedings, and Web of Science, as well as a manual search of selected references. An independent evaluation was performed by 2 investigators. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus in the working group. Contingency tables were performed, and the OR with confidence intervals of each study were obtained. Heterogeneity was assessed by I2. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plot and Egger test. RESULTS: A total of 8 articles were selected for the meta-analysis of mortality, which included a total of 20,684 patients. A significant association was observed between the use of saline and mortality in intensive care patients (OR 1.0972; 95% CI 1.0049-1.1979), when compared to the use of balanced crystalloids. No statistical evidence of publication bias (Egger, P=.5349) was found. In the sensitivity analysis, none of the studies substantially modified the overall outcome if it was eliminated from the meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS: There may be an increase in mortality associated with the use of saline in patients admitted to intensive care when comparing with the use of balanced crystalloids.

Relationship between acute kidney injury and serum procalcitonin (PCT) concentration in critically ill patients with influenza infection / Relación entre disfunción renal aguda y valores séricos de procalcitonina en pacientes críticos con infección por gripe

INTRODUCTION: Serum procalcitonin (PCT) concentration could be increased in patients with renal dysfunction in the absence of bacterial infection. OBJECTIVE: To determine the interactions among serum renal biomarkers of acute kidney injury (AKI) and serum PCT concentration, in patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) due to lung influenza infection. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of a prospective multicentre observational study. SETTING: 148 Spanish ICUs. PATIENTS: ICU patients admitted with influenza infection without bacterial co-infection. Clinical, laboratory and hemodynamic variables were recorded. AKI was classified as AKI I or II based on creatinine (Cr) concentrations (≥1.60-2.50mg/dL and Cr≥2.51-3.99mg/dL, respectively). Patients with chronic renal disease, receiving renal replacement treatment or with Cr>4mg/dL were excluded. Spearman's correlation, simple and multiple linear regression analysis were performed. INTERVENTIONS: None. RESULTS: Out of 663 patients included in the study, 52 (8.2%) and 10 (1.6%) developed AKI I and II, respectively. Patients with AKI were significantly older, had more comorbid conditions and were more severally ill. PCT concentrations were higher in patients with AKI (2.62 [0.60-10.0]ng/mL vs. 0.40 [0.13-1.20]ng/mL, p = 0.002). Weak correlations between Cr/PCT (rho=0.18) and Urea (U)/PCT (rho=0.19) were identified. Simple linear regression showed poor interaction between Cr/U and PCT concentrations (Cr R2=0.03 and U R2=0.018). Similar results were observed during multiple linear regression analysis (Cr R2=0.046 and U R2=0.013). CONCLUSIONS: Although PCT concentrations were slightly higher in patients with AKI, high PCT concentrations are not explained by AKI and could be warning sign of a potential bacterial infection

INTRODUCCIÓN: Los niveles de procalcitonina (PCT) pueden elevarse en pacientes con disfunción renal aún en ausencia de infección bacteriana. OBJETIVOS: Determinar la interacción entre los biomarcadores de disfunción renal aguda (AKI) y las concentraciones séricas de PCT en pacientes ingresados en cuidados intensivos (UCI) debido a infección por gripe. DISEÑO: Análisis secundario de un estudio prospectivo, multicéntrico observacional. Lugar: Ciento cuarenta y ocho UCI. PACIENTES: Con infección por gripe sin co-infección bacteriana. Se registraron las variables clínicas, de laboratorio y hemodinámicas. El nivel de AKI fue definido como AKI I y II basado en la creatinina (Cr) sérica (>1,60-2,50mg/dl y >2,51-3,99mg/dl), respectivamente. Pacientes con insuficiencia renal crónica, técnicas de reemplazo renal o Cr>4mg/dl fueron excluidos. El análisis estadístico se realizó mediante correlación de Spearman y regresión linear simple y múltiple. INTERVENCIONES: Ninguna. RESULTADOS: De los 663 pacientes incluidos, 52 (8,2%) y 10 (1,6%) desarrollaron AKI I y II, respectivamente. Pacientes con AKI fueron más añosos, presentaron más comorbilidades y mayor nivel de gravedad. Los niveles de PCT fueron mayores en pacientes con AKI (2,62 [0,60-10,0] ng/ml vs. 0,40 [0,13-1,20] ng/ml; p = 0,002). Se observaron correlaciones débiles entre Cr/PCT (rho=0,18) y PCT/U (rho=0,19). La regresión linear simple evidenció una pobre contribución tanto de Cr (R2=0,03) como de U (R2=0,018) sobre los niveles de PCT. Resultados similares fueron obtenidos con la regresión linear múltiple para Cr (R2=0,046) y U (R2=0,013). CONCLUSIONES: Aunque los valores de PCT pueden estar elevados en pacientes con AKI, altos niveles de PCT no pueden ser explicados por la disfunción renal y podrían ser un signo de alarma de una potencial infección bacteriana

Current aspects in sepsis approach. Turning things around.

The incidence and prevalence of sepsis depend on the definitions and records that we use and we may be underestimating their impact. Up to 60% of the cases come from the community and in 30-60% we obtain microbiological information. Sometimes its presentation is ambiguous and there may be a delay in its detection, especially in the fragile population. Procalcitonin is the most validated biomarker for bacterial sepsis and the one that best discriminates the non-infectious cause. Presepsin and pro-adrenomedullin are useful for early diagnosis, risk stratification and prognosis in septic patients. The combination of biomarkers is even more useful to clarify an infectious cause than any isolated biomarker. Resuscitation with artificial colloids has worse results than crystalloids, especially in patients with renal insufficiency. The combination of saline solution and balanced crystalloids is associated with a better prognosis. Albumin is only recommended in patients who require a large volume of fluids. The modern molecular methods on the direct sample or the identification by MALDI-TOF on positive blood culture have helped to shorten the response times in diagnosis, to optimize the antibiotic treatment and to facilitate stewardship programs. The hemodynamic response in neonates and children is different from that in adults. In neonatal sepsis, persistent pulmonary hypertension leads to an increase in right ventricular afterload and heart failure with hepatomegaly. Hypotension, poor cardiac output with elevated systemic vascular resistance (cold shock) is often a terminal sign in septic shock. Developing ultra-fast Point-of-Care tests (less than 30 minutes), implementing technologies based on omics, big data or massive sequencing or restoring "healthy" microbiomes in critical patients after treatment are the main focuses of research in sepsis. The main benefits of establishing a sepsis code are to decrease the time to achieve diagnosis and treatment, improve organization, unify criteria, promote teamwork to achieve common goals, increase participation, motivation and satisfaction among team members, and reduce costs.

Relationship between acute kidney injury and serum procalcitonin (PCT) concentration in critically ill patients with influenza infection.

INTRODUCTION: Serum procalcitonin (PCT) concentration could be increased in patients with renal dysfunction in the absence of bacterial infection. OBJECTIVE: To determine the interactions among serum renal biomarkers of acute kidney injury (AKI) and serum PCT concentration, in patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) due to lung influenza infection. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of a prospective multicentre observational study. SETTING: 148 Spanish ICUs. PATIENTS: ICU patients admitted with influenza infection without bacterial co-infection. Clinical, laboratory and hemodynamic variables were recorded. AKI was classified as AKI I or II based on creatinine (Cr) concentrations (≥1.60-2.50mg/dL and Cr≥2.51-3.99mg/dL, respectively). Patients with chronic renal disease, receiving renal replacement treatment or with Cr>4mg/dL were excluded. Spearman's correlation, simple and multiple linear regression analysis were performed. INTERVENTIONS: None. RESULTS: Out of 663 patients included in the study, 52 (8.2%) and 10 (1.6%) developed AKI I and II, respectively. Patients with AKI were significantly older, had more comorbid conditions and were more severally ill. PCT concentrations were higher in patients with AKI (2.62 [0.60-10.0]ng/mL vs. 0.40 [0.13-1.20]ng/mL, p=0.002). Weak correlations between Cr/PCT (rho=0.18) and Urea (U)/PCT (rho=0.19) were identified. Simple linear regression showed poor interaction between Cr/U and PCT concentrations (Cr R2=0.03 and U R2=0.018). Similar results were observed during multiple linear regression analysis (Cr R2=0.046 and U R2=0.013). CONCLUSIONS: Although PCT concentrations were slightly higher in patients with AKI, high PCT concentrations are not explained by AKI and could be warning sign of a potential bacterial infection.

Association between exposure to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers prior to septic shock and acute kidney injury.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) use prior to a septic shock episode and the development, prognosis and long-term recovery from acute kidney injury (AKI). DESIGN: A single-centre, prospective observational study was carried out between September 2005 and August 2010. SCOPE: Patients admitted to the ICU of a third level hospital. PATIENTS: A total of 386 septic shock patients were studied. INTERVENTIONS: None. VARIABLES OF INTEREST: Use of ACEIs/ARBs, AKI development, recovery of previous creatinine levels and time to recovery. RESULTS: A total of 386 patients were included, of which 312 (80.8%) developed AKI during ICU stay and 23% were receiving ACEIs/ARBs. The percentage of patients on ACEIs/ARBs increased significantly in relation to more severe stages of AKI irrespective of the kind of AKI score. After adjusting for confounders, the development of AKI was independently associated to the use of ACEIs/ARBs (OR 2.19; 95%CI 1.21-3.84; p=.04). With respect to the recovery of kidney function, the group of patients on ACEIs/ARBs had significantly higher creatinine levels at ICU discharge and needed hemodialysis more frequently thereafter. However, use of ACEIs/ARBs affected neither recovery of previous creatinine levels nor significantly delayed recovery. CONCLUSIONS: The use of ACEIs/ARBs before septic shock episodes was correlated to AKI development and severity, but did not affect the recovery of kidney function after sepsis resolution.