The challenges of solar hydrogen in chemical industry: how to provide, and how to apply?

Curbing anthropogenic CO2 emissions is one of the most important issues in the 21st century in order to mitigate climate change. Although the installation of solar cells for energy supply is in progress and these are becoming popular as an efficient use of sunlight, they are mostly used by energy-related industrial sectors. In the common chemical industry, various fossil resources are used to emit a huge amount of CO2. We believe that the chemical industry can make an effort to curb CO2 emissions by changing its resources to more environmentally benign ones. Solar hydrogen (hydrogen obtained by catalytic water splitting under sunlight) is an ideal sustainable resource and can be utilized as a chemical resource via combination with CO2. The 10 year program named "Artificial Photo Synthetic Chemical Process (ARPChem)" has been in progress under the support of the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) in Japan since 2012. We introduce the strategy of ARPChem and the progress of the investigations including water splitting, hydrogen/oxygen separation, and olefin synthesis from solar hydrogen and CO2. We also argue that a realistic strategy to actualize "ARPChem" technologies in the society would be their combination with better fossil resources such as lower alkanes from a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) point of view.

Mechanism of Decomposition of Surface Ethoxy Species to Ethene and Acidic OH Groups on H-ZSM-5.

The reaction mechanism of the decomposition of ethoxy species to ethene and acidic OH groups on H-ZSM-5 was studied by IR spectroscopy using isotope-labeled ethanol. The concerted mechanism occurring on both the ethoxy (acid) site and the counterpart lattice oxygen was suggested by GC-MS analysis of evolved d2-ethene and IR observation of the recovery of OH s groups on acid sites from the decomposition of CH3CD2O- ethoxy species. The concerted mechanism was further confirmed by the estimation of activation energy for decomposition of CH3CH2O-, CH3CD2O-, and CD3CD2O- ethoxy species, 122 ± 3, 125 ± 3, and 140 ± 5 kJ mol(-1), respectively, where the kinetic isotope effect was observed for the cleavage of the CH or CD bond of the methyl group of the ethoxy species.

Titanium(IV) in the organic-structure-directing-agent-free synthesis of hydrophobic and large-pore molecular sieves as redox catalysts.

Titanium(IV) incorporated into the framework of molecular sieves can be used as a highly active and sustainable catalyst for the oxidation of industrially important organic molecules. Unfortunately, the current process for the incorporation of titanium(IV) requires a large amount of expensive organic molecules used as organic-structure-directing agents (OSDAs), and this significantly increases the production costs and causes environmental problems owing to the removal of OSDAs by pyrolysis. Herein, an OSDA-free process was developed to incorporate titanium(IV) into BEA-type molecular sieves for the first time. More importantly, the hydrophobic environment and the robust, 3 D, and large pore structure of the titanium(IV)-incorporated molecular sieves fabricated from the OSDA-free process created a catalyst that was extremely active and selective for the epoxidation of bulky cyclooctene in comparison to Ti-incorporated BEA-type molecular sieves synthesized with OSDAs and commercial titanosilicate TS-1.

Helical mesoporous silica as an inorganic heterogeneous chiral trigger for asymmetric autocatalysis with amplification of enantiomeric excess.

Mesoporous silica has been used as a heterogeneous support for catalysts; however, asymmetric induction by the helicity of inorganic mesoporous silica itself has not yet been achieved. P- and M-helical mesoporous silica was found to act as a chiral inorganic trigger for asymmetric autocatalysis to afford (S) and (R)-pyrimidyl alkanol with >99.5% ee, respectively.

Synthesis and structural characterization of Al-containing interlayer-expanded-MWW zeolite with high catalytic performance.

Treatment of the zeolitic layered precursor of Al-MWW, so-called Al-MWW(P), with diethoxydimethylsilane (DEDMS) in acidic media leads to the formation of an aluminosilicate-type interlayer-expanded zeolite MWW (Al-IEZ-MWW) with expanded 12-membered ring (12-MR) micropores. However, the silylation process under acidic conditions simultaneously causes dealumination from the MWW framework, resulting in a decrease in the acid amount. We have developed a method for preparing Al-IEZ-MWW without leaching of the Al species. The strategy is to conduct the silylation under weakly acidic conditions; the silylation was conducted in an aqueous solution of an ammonium salt, e.g., NH4Cl, instead of HNO3. Subsequent additional acid treatment led to the formation of Al-IEZ-MWW that shows a high catalytic performance in the acylation of anisole compared to typical Al-MWW as well as Al-IEZ-MWW directly prepared under acidic conditions. The change in the state of Al atoms during the preparation process was investigated by high-resolution solid-state (27)Al MAS NMR and (27)Al MQMAS NMR techniques.

Framework stability and Brønsted acidity of isomorphously substituted interlayer-expanded zeolite COE-4: a density functional theory study.

COE-4 zeolites possess a unique two-dimensional ten-ring pore structure with the Si(OH)2 hydroxyl groups attached to the linker position between the ferrierite-type layers, which has been demonstrated through the interlayer-expansion approach in our previous work (H. Gies et al. Chem. Mater. 2012, 24, 1536). Herein, density functional theory is used to study the framework stability and Brønsted acidity of the zeolite T-COE-4, in which the tetravalent Si is isomorphously substituted by a trivalent Fe, B, Ga, or Al heteroatom at the linker position. The influences of substitution energy and equilibrium geometry parameters on the stability of T-COE-4 are investigated in detail. The relative acid strength of the linker position is revealed by the proton affinity, charge analysis, and NH3 adsorption. It is found that the range of the ⟨T-O-Si⟩ angles is widened to maintain the stability of isomorphously substituted T-COE-4 zeolites. The smaller the ⟨O1-T-O2⟩ bond angle is, the more difficult is to form the regular tetrahedral unit. Thus, the substitution energies at the linker positions increase in the following sequence: Al-COE-4 < Ga-COE-4 < Fe-COE-4 < B-COE-4. The adsorption of NH3 as a probe molecule indicates that the acidity can affect the hydrogen-bonding interaction between (N-H⋅⋅⋅O2) and (N⋅⋅⋅H-O2). The relative Brønsted-acid strength of the interlayer-expanded T-COE-4 zeolite decreases in the order of Al-COE-4 > Ga-COE-4 > Fe-COE-4 > B-COE-4. These findings may be helpful for the structural design and functional modification of interlayer-expanded zeolites.

Differences in Al distribution and acidic properties between RTH-type zeolites synthesized with OSDAs and without OSDAs.

In addition to the original preparation route of the RTH-type zeolites using 1,2,2,6,6-pentamethylpiperidine (PMP) as an organic structure directing agent (OSDA), we have found that simpler organic amines such as N-methylpiperidine and pyridine can be used as alternative OSDAs in place of PMP. Furthermore, we have established a synthesis method for preparing the RTH-type zeolites without using any OSDAs. In this study, RTH-type aluminosilicates were synthesized with different types of OSDA or without using any OSDAs. The obtained zeolites synthesized with different preparation methods were characterized by using various techniques, especially high-resolution (27)Al MAS NMR and in situ FT-IR techniques using CO adsorption. The relationship between the preparation method and the catalytic performance in the methanol to olefins (MTO) reaction was discussed. Finally, the distribution of Al species in the RTH-framework was clarified.

Intramolecular H/D Exchange of Ethanol Catalyzed by Acidic OH Groups on H-ZSM-5 Zeolite.

IR observation of ethanol adsorption clarified the presence of the apparent intramolecular isotope exchange from CD3CH2OH to CHD2CH2OD on acidic OH groups of H-ZSM-5 zeolite. This reaction did not proceed with CD3OH nor CH3CD2OH, implying that the ß-hydrogen of alcohol had interaction with the lattice oxygen adjacent to Al and that the reaction was mediated by isotope exchange of CD3 groups of ethanol and OH groups on zeolite.

New zeolite Al-COE-4: reaching highly shape-selective catalytic performance through interlayer expansion.

A ferrierite-type layered aluminosilicate, Al-RUB-36, was prepared for the first time and its interlayer expansion resulted in new zeolite catalysts denoted Al-COE-3 and Al-COE-4. Decane hydroconversion tests demonstrated the highly active and shape-selective nature of the new Al-COE-4 catalyst with an unprecedented isomerization yield, highlighting the potential of this material as a hydroisomerization catalyst. This is the first report on achieving shape-selectivity via interlayer expansion.

Novel LaBO3 hollow nanospheres of size 34±2 nm templated by polymeric micelles.

Novel lanthanum borate (LaBO(3)) hollow nanospheres of size 34±2 nm have been reported for the first time by soft-template self-assembly process. Poly(styrene-b-acrylic acid-b-ethylene oxide) (PS-PAA-PEO) micelle with core-shell-corona architecture serves as an efficient soft template for fabrication of LaBO(3) hollow particles using sodium borohydride (NaBH(4)) and LaCl(3)⋅7H(2)O as the precursors. In this template, the PS block (core) acts as a template of the void space of hollow particle, the anionic PAA block (shell) serves as reaction field for metal ion interactions, and the PEO block (corona) stabilizes the polymer/lanthana composite particles. The PS-PAA-PEO micelles and the resulting LaBO(3) hollow nanospheres were thoroughly characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction, magic angle spinning-nuclear magnetic resonance ((11)B MAS NMR), energy dispersive X-ray analysis, thermal analyses, Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy, and nitrogen adsorption/desorption analyses. The nitrogen adsorption/desorption analyses and TEM observation of the hollow particles confirmed the presence of disordered mesopores in the LaBO(3) shell domain. The solid state (11)B MAS NMR spectra of LaBO(3) hollow nanospheres revealed that the shell part contains both trigonal and tetrahedral boron species. The LaBO(3) hollow particles were applied to anode materials in lithium-ion rechargeable batteries (LIBs). The hollow particles exhibited high coulombic efficiency and charge-discharge cycling capacities of up to 100 cycles in the LIBs.

Periodic organosilica hollow nanospheres as anode materials for lithium ion rechargeable batteries.

Polymeric micelles with core-shell-corona architecture have been found to be the efficient colloidal templates for synthesis of periodic organosilica hollow nanospheres over a broad pH range from acidic to alkaline media. In alkaline medium, poly (styrene-b-[3-(methacryloylamino)propyl] trimethylammonium chloride-b-ethylene oxide) (PS-PMAPTAC-PEO) micelles yield benzene-silica hollow nanospheres with molecular scale periodicity of benzene groups in the shell domain of hollow particles. Whereas, an acidic medium (pH 4) produces diverse hollow particles with benzene, ethylene, and a mixture of ethylene and dipropyldisulfide bridging functionalities using poly(styrene-b-2-vinyl pyridine-b-ethylene oxide) (PS-PVP-PEO) micelles. These hollow particles were thoroughly characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DTA), Fourier transformation infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), magic angle spinning-nuclear magnetic resonance ((29)Si MAS NMR and (13)CP-MAS NMR), Raman spectroscopy, and nitrogen adsorption/desorption analyses. The benzene-silica hollow nanospheres with molecular scale periodicity in the shell domain exhibit higher cycling performance of up to 300 cycles in lithium ion rechargeable batteries compared with micron-sized dense benzene-silica particles.

The influence of acidities of boron- and aluminium-containing MFI zeolites on co-reaction of methanol and ethene.

A series of boron- and aluminium-containing MFI zeolites were synthesized and various characterization techniques, such as NMR ((27)Al, (29)Si and (11)B), were employed to study the acidities of zeolites. Moreover, in situ IR was applied to investigate the interaction of methanol and ethene with the acid sites, and those catalytic materials were used for co-reaction of methanol and ethene to produce propene. The production of propene was related to the Al content of the zeolites with Si/Al ratios of higher than 90. It is implied that the presence of boron during the synthesis directed the aluminium to occupy certain tetrahedral sites in the zeolite framework, thus preventing the formation of ethene oligomers, and resulting in increased propene selectivity.

Novel titania hollow nanospheres of size 28 ± 1 nm using soft-templates and their application for lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.

We report a novel protocol to prepare titania hollow nanospheres of size about 28 ± 1 nm with micelles of asymmetric triblock copolymers. The hollow particles exhibit unique electrochemical properties in lithium ion rechargeable batteries such as high capacity, very low irreversible capacity loss, and high cycling performance.

Extension of size of monodisperse silica nanospheres and their well-ordered assembly.

A liquid-phase method for preparing uniform-sized silica nanospheres (SNSs) 12 nm in size and their three-dimensionally ordered arrangement upon solvent evaporation have recently been pioneered by us. Here we report the successful control of the sphere sizes in the wide range from 14 to 550 nm by the seed regrowth method. In this method, the dispersion of SNSs 14 nm in size as seeds was prepared in the emulsion system containing Si(OEt)(4) (TEOS), water and arginine under weakly basic conditions (pH 9-10). An appropriate portion of this dispersion is added to the solution containing water, ethanol and arginine, and then TEOS is added. The additional TEOS introduced into the regrowth system contributed only to the resumed growth of the seeds, not to the formation of new silica particles. The size of interparticle pores was finely tuned by changing the size of the spheres. The preparation of three-dimensionally ordered porous carbons by using the colloidal array of silica nanospheres as a template is also reported.

Usefulness of alkoxyltitanosiloxane for the preparation of mesoporous silica containing a large amount of isolated titanium.

Mesoporous silica containing a large amount of isolated Ti was prepared from an alkoxytitanosiloxane precursor through a hard template method. Isopropoxytris(tris-tert-butoxysiloxy)titanium (((i)PrO)Ti[OSi(O(t)Bu)(3)](3), TS3) was synthesized and TS3 was mixed with mesoporous carbon (CMK-3), a hard template. The mixture was pyrolyzed at 180 °C to form a composite consisting of titanosilica and the hard template. After calcination at 600 °C for the removal of the carbon template, the titanium species were not transformed to anatase TiO(2), proved by DR-UV-Vis, FTIR, XPS, and XRD, while the ESR results indicated the presence of isolated Ti. The mesoporous structure was verified by SEM, TEM, and N(2) adsorption. The Si/Ti ratio of the product was consistent with that of the precursor. All the results show that the material prepared from the precursor is ordered mesoporous silica containing a large amount of isolated Ti in the frameworks. The use of well-defined alkoxytitanosiloxane precursor leads to the formation of mesoporous silica with exactly controlled composition of titanium with neither loss of Ti nor transformation to anatase.

Synthesis and application of colloidal nanocrystals of the MFI-type zeolites.

The colloidal dispersion containing the nanosized zeolites with the MFI topology has been successfully prepared. A pre-aging process of the mother gel at 80°C for 24 h before the crystallization was important for the formation of the nanosized zeolites. We have also found that silicalite-1 nanocrystals av. 62 nm in size were formed by the addition of acidic amino acids into the mother gel. The particle size of the zeolites can be controlled ranging from 62 to 530 nm by changing the amount of water, aging process, crystallization time and temperature and the addition of organic molecules. Furthermore, nanosized titanium silicalite-1 (TS-1) with the size of 50-130 nm has been successfully synthesized by the addition of a Ti source into the synthesis gel of the silicalite-1 nanocrystals. The nanosized TS-1 exhibits a higher catalytic activity in the epoxidation of cyclohexene than the microsized ones. Finally, we demonstrate the preparation of thin films of the silicalite-1 and TS-1 nanocrystals onto a silicon substrate by a dip-coating technique.

Preparation of a colloidal array of NaTaO3 nanoparticles via a confined space synthesis route and its photocatalytic application.

The confined space synthesis method has been applied to the preparation of sodium tantalate (NaTaO(3)); hydrothermal reaction of NaOH and Ta(2)O(5) was carried out in the pores of a three-dimensional mesoporous carbon, which was replicated by the colloidal array of silica nanospheres (SNSs) 20 nm in size. This approach led to the formation of a colloidal array of NaTaO(3) nanoparticles 20 nm in size with a surface area of 34 m(2) g(-1). The photocatalytic performance of the colloidal array of NaTaO(3) nanoparticles for overall water splitting under UV irradiation (λ > 200 nm) was evaluated after loading a NiO cocatalyst onto NaTaO(3) samples. The NiO-loaded NaTaO(3) nanoparticles showed photocatalytic activity for overall water splitting more than three times as high as non-structured bulk NaTaO(3) particles.

Al-RUB-41: a shape-selective zeolite catalyst from a layered silicate.

A new zeolite catalyst, Al-RUB-41, was synthesized for the first time. It was tested as a catalyst in methanol amination, and showed a shape-selective performance that results in a highly favorable product distribution. The shape-selective nature was also evidenced by using Pt-Al-RUB-41 as a bifunctional catalyst for decane hydroconversion. With its unique pore architecture and remarkable shape-selective character, Al-RUB-41 presents a significant commercial potential in industrial catalysis.

A comparative IR characterization of acidic sites on HY zeolite by pyridine and CO probes with silica-alumina and γ-alumina references.

Using IR spectroscopy, three different surface states of HY zeolite were probed by successive adsorption of CO at 143 K followed by evacuation and pyridine adsorption at 523 K: HY zeolite [1] without strong Lewis acid sites (LAS); [2] after high temperature (873 K) evacuation to convert Brønsted acid sites (BAS) to strong LAS; and [3] after water re-adsorption on HY zeolite [2] to recover BAS from LAS. The original surface of HY zeolite [1] seemed to be recovered on HY zeolite [3] after high temperature evacuation and water treatment by CO adsorption, while a part of generated LAS on HY zeolite [2] seemed irreversible on HY zeolite [3] to HY zeolite [1] by pyridine adsorption. To clarify this discrepancy, re-examination of the IR spectra of adsorbed CO and pyridine on γ-alumina and silica-alumina after similar treatments to those on HY zeolite was conducted. Based on the results of CO adsorption on γ-alumina and silica-alumina, the presence of extra-framework aluminium sites on HY zeolite [1] was confirmed. High temperature evacuation of HY zeolite [1] formed very strong LAS, a part of which was irreversible to BAS by water re-adsorption at room temperature. The irreversible sites on HY zeolite [3] were assigned to non-acidic OH groups attributed to silica-alumina. The non-acidic OH groups on HY zeolite [3], which were BAS on HY zeolite [1], hydrogen-bonded to pyridine to show IR spectra similar to those adsorbed on LAS. Thus, LAS on HY zeolite [3] seemed irreversible by pyridine adsorption after water re-adsorption. On the other hand, CO adsorbed on non-acidic OH groups showed a band at only slightly lower frequency (2160 cm(-1)) than that of BAS (2178 cm(-1)), resulting in overlapps and ignoring their presence. Thus, CO adsorption seemed to show that complete recovery of LAS to BAS occurred.