Daily and Ethnic Discriminatory Experiences and Cognitive Control in Mexican-Origin Bilingual Language Brokers.

Few studies have considered bilingualism's impact on cognitive development within the sociolinguistic and cultural context of the immigrant communities where bilingualism is commonly practiced. In the United States, many Mexican-origin bilingual youth practice their bilingual skills by brokering (i.e., translating/interpreting between languages) for their immigrant parents who have low English proficiency. Meanwhile, these youth may also experience discrimination in their daily life. The present study focuses on Mexican-origin bilingual youth brokers (N=334) in order to examine how discriminatory experiences (i.e., daily and ethnic discrimination) and bilingual brokering experiences captured by profiles are related to cognitive control performance (i.e., attentional control and inhibition). We found no significant direct influence of either bilingual broker profiles or discriminatory experiences on cognitive control. However, the associations between discriminatory experiences and cognitive control performance depended upon brokering experiences. Specifically, greater discrimination was associated with lower cognitive control performance among moderate brokers (with moderate bilingual experiences), but the association was attenuated among efficacious brokers (with positive bilingual experiences). Findings highlight the need to consider the sociolinguistic heterogeneity of both discriminatory experiences and language use when investigating cognitive control performance in bilinguals.

Understanding adjustment profiles among Mexican-origin adolescents over time: A focus on cultural risk and resilience factors.

This study used a three-wave longitudinal dataset to: identify adjustment profiles of U.S. Mexican-origin adolescents based on their physical, academic, and psychosocial health adjustment; track adjustment profile changes throughout adolescence; and examine the associations between cultural stressors, family obligation, and adjustment profile membership over time. Participants were 604 Mexican-origin adolescents (54% female, Mage = 12.41, SD = 0.97) in Texas (Wave 1: 2012-2015; Wave 2: 2013-2016; Wave 3: 2017-2020). Three concurrent profiles (Well-adjusted, Moderate, and Poorly-adjusted) emerged at each wave, whereas three transition profiles (Improved, Stable well-adjusted, and Overall poorly-adjusted) were identified across three waves. The results suggest that cultural stressors pose risks for Mexican-origin adolescents' adjustment, and family obligation values play a protective role in these associations.

Language brokering profiles of Mexican-origin adolescents in immigrant communities: Social-cultural contributors and developmental outcomes.

This study examines social-cultural contributors and developmental outcomes of language brokers. From 2012 to 2020, three waves of data were collected from 604 Mexican-origin adolescent language brokers (Mage = 12.92, SD = 0.92, 54% girls). The study (1) identified four distinct subgroups of language brokers (efficacious, conservative, nonchalant, and burdened) who translated for mothers and fathers, after incorporating objective bilingual proficiency along with multiple dimensions of language brokering; (2) showed that early adolescents' Mexican, rather than U.S., cultural values and orientation were related to later language brokering profiles; and (3) showed that the efficacious group was the most resilient while burdened was the most vulnerable to developmental problems. Preservation of Mexican culture may facilitate language brokering experiences related to more positive developmental outcomes.

Prospective Effects of Discrimination, Depressive Symptoms, and Cognitive Control Among Mexican-Origin Women.

OBJECTIVES: Cognitive control predicts functional independence and cognitive health outcomes, but is yet to be known the extent to which social stress, like discrimination, may diminish cognitive control capacities in Mexican-origin women. We evaluated the prospective associations between everyday and ethnic discrimination on cognitive control and examined the mediating effects of depressive symptoms on these links. We further examined the extent to which associations varied by age and financial strain. METHODS: We used data from 596 Mexican-origin women (average age = 38.89, standard deviation = 5.74) who participated in a 3-wave longitudinal study spanning 8 years (from 2012 to 2020). Participants completed measures of everyday and ethnic discrimination at Wave 1, depressive symptoms in Waves 1 and 2, and completed computer-based tasks of cognitive control at Wave 3. Self-reported assessments of financial strain were completed at Wave 2. Moderated mediation structural equation models were implemented to test hypotheses. RESULTS: Depressive symptoms significantly mediated the prospective association between everyday/ethnic discrimination to cognitive control. Higher levels of everyday and ethnic discrimination at baseline were associated with more depressive symptoms at Wave 2, which were then related to poorer cognitive control (i.e., longer reaction time in congruent and/or incongruent trials) at Wave 3. There was no significant moderation of age. Among those with low financial strain, higher levels of everyday discrimination were related to faster response times. DISCUSSION: Results revealed the long-term consequences of experiences with discrimination on cognitive control that operate through increased depressive symptoms and that may have some subtle differential effects across levels of financial strain.

Reconsidering the "Acculturation Gap": Mother-Adolescent Cultural Adaptation Mis/Matches and Positive Psychosocial Outcomes among Mexican-Origin Families.

Previous studies have linked parent-child cultural adaptation mismatches with adolescents' maladjustment without addressing how intergenerational mis/matches are related to positive aspects of adolescent development and parental outcomes. Using data from 604 Mexican-origin families (adolescent sample:54%female, Mage = 12.41, range = 11 to 15), response surface analysis was conducted to investigate how mother-child mis/matches in cultural adaptation (acculturation, enculturation, English and Spanish proficiency) are associated with adolescents' and mothers' resilience and life meaning. Adolescents and mothers reported greater resilience and meaning when they matched at higher, versus lower, levels of acculturation, enculturation and English proficiency; adolescents reported more resilience when they were more acculturated than mothers. The findings provide a strengths-based understanding of parent-child cultural adaptation mis/matches and elucidate how Mexican-origin families thrive in the cultural adaptation process.

Mexican-origin youths' language brokering for fathers and mothers: Daily experiences and youths' diurnal cortisol slopes.

This study examined the associations of language brokering stress intensity and exposure with Mexican-origin youths' cortisol responses when brokering for fathers and mothers, and the moderating role of youths' brokering efficacy in these relations. Participants were 289 adolescents (Mage  = 17.38, SD = .94, 52% girls) in immigrant families. When brokering for mothers, stress exposure was related to flatter (less healthy) same-day diurnal slopes in youth. When brokering for fathers, daily brokering efficacy buffered the detrimental link between stress intensity and youths' same-day cortisol slopes. When brokering for fathers/mothers, stress intensity and exposure were related to flatter (less healthy) next-day diurnal slopes. Although daily brokering stress can relate to youth physiologic functioning, feeling efficacious about brokering may buffer the negative ramifications of stress.

Family Environment, Heritage Language Profiles, and Socioemotional Well-being of Mexican-origin Adolescents with First Generation Immigrant Parents.

Although Mexican-origin youth with first-generation immigrant parents are relatively good at retaining their heritage language of Spanish, limited research has been conducted on their Spanish language development during adolescence. From three-wave longitudinal data across six years (Nwave1 = 604, Mage.wave1 = 12.91, 54% female), distinct groups of adolescents with consistently high, improved, declined, and consistently low Spanish proficiencies were identified. Family relationship quality was more predictive of adolescents' Spanish proficiency than family language environment. The benefits of Spanish proficiency were consistent across adolescents' ethnic identity, resilience, and life meaning. More research and practical attention to parent-adolescent relationships is needed to capitalize on the continued plasticity of adolescents' Spanish language development and to promote consequent positive outcomes.

The Phenotypic, Psychological, and Social Interplays of Skin Color and Developmental Outcomes among Mexican-origin Adolescents: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence.

Mexican-origin children from immigrant families are impacted by various systemic oppressions in life. The study seeks to examine how adolescents' developmental outcomes are associated with specific phenotypic, psychological, and social features of skin color, as manifested by skin tone, skin color satisfaction, and foreigner stress. By taking a holistic approach, we examine both positive and negative adjustment outcomes, including delinquency, resilience, and effortful control. Participants were 604 Mexican-origin adolescents aged between 11.08 and 15.29 (Mage = 12.91, SD = 0.92) with at least one immigrant parent. The findings highlight the harm of foreigner stress and the benefit of skin color satisfaction in Mexican-origin adolescents' development of delinquency, resilience, and effortful control, especially for those with a darker skin color.

Pathways linking ethnic discrimination and drug-using peer affiliation to underage drinking status among Mexican-origin adolescents.

Using a three-wave longitudinal data set of Mexican-origin adolescents (N = 602, Mage = 12.92, SD = 0.91 at Wave 1), this study examines parallel pathways from early exposure to ethnic discrimination and drug-using peers, separately, to underage drinking status by late adolescence. Negative affect was expected to mediate the link from ethnic discrimination to underage drinking status (the stress-induced pathway), whereas social alcohol expectancy was expected to mediate the link from drug-using peers to underage drinking status (the socialization pathway). Our findings lend support to the stress-induced pathway while controlling for the socialization pathway. For the stress-induced pathway, we found that early ethnic discrimination experiences were related to higher likelihood of having engaged in underage drinking by late adolescence through elevated negative affect sustained across adolescence. For the socialization pathway, we found no association between affiliation with drug-using peers in early adolescence and underage drinking status, either directly or indirectly. Present findings highlight the unique role of early ethnic discrimination experiences in underage drinking among Mexican-origin adolescents, over and above the effect of drug-using peers. Alcohol use interventions targeting ethnic minority adolescents should account for adolescents' ethnic discrimination experiences by helping adolescents develop adaptive coping strategies to handle negative affect induced by discrimination (e.g., reappraisal) rather than using alcohol to self-medicate. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Family Obligation, Parenting, and Adolescent Outcomes Among Mexican American Families.

The current study investigates how and under what conditions family obligation benefits Mexican American adolescents' adjustment. The study used two waves of data from 604 Mexican American adolescents (54.3% female, Mage.wave1 = 12.41 years, SD = 0.97) and their parents. Structural equation modeling revealed that both adolescents' and parents' sense of family obligation related to more supportive parenting (i.e., parental monitoring, warmth, and inductive reasoning), which linked to better adolescent adjustment (i.e., sense of life meaning, resilience, and grades). There were parent gender differences: Adolescents' family obligation was more strongly related to their reports of maternal (vs. paternal) parenting. The links also varied across informants for parenting: (a) individuals' sense of family obligation related only to their own perceptions of parenting and (b) there were more evident associations between adolescent-reported (vs. parent-reported) parenting and adolescent outcomes.

Culturally relevant stressors as moderators of intergenerational transmission of mother-adolescent executive function in Mexican immigrant families.

The intergenerational transmission of executive function may be enhanced or interrupted by culturally salient environmental stressors that shape the practice of executive function in the family. Building upon past research, the current study tests whether culturally relevant stressors such as economic stress and foreigner stress have a direct effect on adolescent executive function, as well as whether they modify the intergenerational transmission of mother-child executive function (i.e., working memory, inhibitory control, and shifting) in low-income Mexican immigrant families. The sample consists of 179 Mexican American adolescents (Mage = 17.03 years; SDage = 0.83; 58% females) and their Mexico-born mothers (Mage = 43.25 years; SDage = 5.90). Results show that mothers' perceived economic stress is associated with poor inhibitory control in adolescents. Low levels of mothers' perceived foreigner stress related to a stronger association between mothers' and adolescents' working memory, while high levels of mothers' perceived foreigner stress related to enhanced intergenerational transmission of poor shifting ability. Study findings demonstrate the prominence of perceived foreigner stress as a contextually relevant factor moderating the intergenerational transmission of mother-child executive function in low-income Mexican immigrant families.

Language Brokering-Stress Transition Profiles and Marijuana Use in Mexican-Origin Adolescents.

Although Mexican-origin adolescents experience multiple contextual stressors (e.g., discrimination, economic stress, and foreigner stress) that may result in increased marijuana use, they actively engage in cultural practices (e.g., language brokering) that may protect them from adverse developmental outcomes. Yet, the joint influence of contextual stressors and language brokering on marijuana use has rarely been studied from a developmental perspective. Using a sample of 604 Mexican-origin adolescent brokers (54% female, Mage.Wave1 = 12.41), we examined how stability and change of language brokering-contextual stress (i.e., broker-stress) profiles across three waves are related to adolescent marijuana use. We hypothesized that adolescents with positive brokering experiences and lower contextual stress across three waves (i.e., those in the Stable Protective profile) would be the least likely to use marijuana. For brokering for mothers, the Stable Protective and the Change to Protective groups were less likely than other groups to use marijuana. For brokering for fathers, the Stable Protective group was the least likely to use marijuana and the Change to Protective group was less likely than the Risk at Any Wave group to use marijuana. Interventions could foster brokering-related positive feelings across the course of adolescence to reduce marijuana use among Mexican-origin adolescents.

Longitudinal profiles of acculturation and developmental outcomes among Mexican-origin adolescents from immigrant families.

Prior studies investigating the association between acculturation and adolescent adjustment have often focused on specific acculturation domains rather than examining these domains collectively in a profile typology. Here, we investigate stability and change patterns in Mexican American adolescent acculturation profiles over time, using a two-wave longitudinal dataset spanning 5 years. Using latent profile analysis, three adolescent acculturation profiles were identified at Waves 1 and 2: integrated; moderately integrated; and moderately assimilated. Using latent transition analysis, four acculturation transition profiles were identified across time: stable integrated; stable moderately integrated; progressive; and regressive. Over half of all adolescents were identified as belonging to the stable integrated and stable moderately integrated transition profiles. Adolescents classified in the stable integrated profile reported the highest levels of adjustment (academic competence and socioemotional well-being) relative to those with other transition profiles. Findings from this study contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic process of acculturation among Mexican American adolescents, and provide useful insights to inform interventions and policies aimed at improving Mexican-origin adolescents' adaption to US culture while maintaining their heritage Mexican culture.

Bilingual language broker profiles and academic competence in Mexican-origin adolescents.

We advance a tripartite framework of language use to encompass language skills, the practice of language skills, and the subjective experiences associated with language use among Mexican-origin adolescents who function as language brokers by translating and interpreting for their English-limited parents. Using data collected over 2 waves from a sample of 604 adolescents (Wave 1: Mage = 12.41, SD = 0.97), this study identified 4 types of bilingual language broker profiles that capture the tripartite framework of language use: efficacious, moderate, ambivalent, and nonchalant. All 4 profiles emerged across waves and brokering recipients (i.e., mothers, fathers), except for Wave 1 brokering for mother, in which case only 3 profiles (i.e., efficacious, moderate, and ambivalent) emerged. Three profiles emerged across time: stable efficacious, stable moderate, and other. The efficacious and stable efficacious profiles showed the most consistent relation to adolescents' academic competence. Improving bilingual language proficiency, together with fostering more frequently positive brokering experiences, may be an avenue to improving academic competence among Mexican-origin adolescents in the United States. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).