Protective Effects of Coptis chinensis Rhizome Extract and Its Constituents (Berberine, Coptisine, and Palmatine) against α-Synuclein Neurotoxicity in Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease with progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra and the presence of α-synuclein-immunoreactive inclusions. Gaucher's disease is caused by homozygous mutations in ß-glucocerebrosidase gene (GBA). GBA mutation carriers have an increased risk of PD. Coptis chinensis (C. chinensis) rhizome extract is a major herb widely used to treat human diseases. This study examined the association of GBA L444P mutation with Taiwanese PD in 1016 cases and 539 controls. In addition, the protective effects of C. chinensis rhizome extract and its active constituents (berberine, coptisine, and palmatine) against PD were assayed using GBA reporter cells, LC3 reporter cells, and cells expressing mutated (A53T) α-synuclein. Case-control study revealed that GBA L444P carriers had a 3.93-fold increased risk of PD (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.37-11.24, p = 0.006) compared to normal controls. Both C. chinensis rhizome extract and its constituents exhibited chemical chaperone activity to reduce α-synuclein aggregation. Promoter reporter and endogenous GBA protein analyses revealed that C. chinensis rhizome extract and its constituents upregulated GBA expression in 293 cells. In addition, C. chinensis rhizome extract and its constituents induced autophagy in DsRed-LC3-expressing 293 cells. In SH-SY5Y cells expressing A53T α-synuclein, C. chinensis rhizome extract and its constituents reduced α-synuclein aggregation and associated neurotoxicity by upregulating GBA expression and activating autophagy. The results of reducing α-synuclein aggregation, enhancing GBA expression and autophagy, and protecting against α-synuclein neurotoxicity open up the therapeutic potentials of C. chinensis rhizome extract and constituents for PD.

Coumarin-chalcone hybrid LM-021 and indole derivative NC009-1 targeting inflammation and oxidative stress to protect BE(2)-M17 cells against α-synuclein toxicity.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is featured mainly by the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the presence of α-synuclein-containing aggregates in the substantia nigra of brain. The α-synuclein fibrils and aggregates lead to increased oxidative stress and neural toxicity in PD. Chronic inflammation mediated by microglia is one of the hallmarks of PD pathophysiology. In this report, we showed that coumarin-chalcone hybrid LM-021 and indole derivative NC009-1 reduced the expression of major histocompatibility complex-II, NLR family pyrin domain containing (NLRP) 3, caspase-1, inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in α-synuclein-activated mouse BV-2 microglia. Release of pro-inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide, IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α was also mitigated. In BE(2)-M17 cells expressing A53T α-synuclein aggregates, LM-021 and NC009-1 reduced α-synuclein aggregation, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis, and promoted neurite outgrowth. These protective effects were mediated by downregulating NLRP1, IL-1ß and IL-6, and their downstream pathways including nuclear factor (NF)-κB inhibitor alpha (IκBα)/NF-κB P65 subunit (P65), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/proto-oncogene c-Jun (JUN), mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (P38)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1, and Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/STAT3. The study results indicate LM-021 and NC009-1 as potential new drug candidates for PD.

Investigating Therapeutic Effects of Indole Derivatives Targeting Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Neurotoxin-Induced Cell and Mouse Models of Parkinson's Disease.

Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress have been emerging as important pathways contributing to Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis. In PD brains, the activated microglia release inflammatory factors such as interleukin (IL)-ß, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and nitric oxide (NO), which increase oxidative stress and mediate neurodegeneration. Using 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)-activated human microglial HMC3 cells and the sub-chronic 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced mouse model of PD, we found the potential of indole derivative NC009-1 against neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neurodegeneration for PD. In vitro, NC009-1 alleviated MPP+-induced cytotoxicity, reduced NO, IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α production, and suppressed NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation in MPP+-activated HMC3 cells. In vivo, NC009-1 ameliorated motor deficits and non-motor depression, increased dopamine and dopamine transporter levels in the striatum, and reduced oxidative stress as well as microglia and astrocyte reactivity in the ventral midbrain of MPTP-treated mice. These protective effects were achieved by down-regulating NLRP3, CASP1, iNOS, IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α, and up-regulating SOD2, NRF2, and NQO1. These results strengthen the involvement of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in PD pathogenic mechanism, and indicate NC009-1 as a potential drug candidate for PD treatment.