A framework for validating watershed ecosystem service models in the United States using long-term water quality data: Applications with the InVEST Nutrient Delivery (NDR) model in Puerto Rico.

Modeling of watershed Ecosystem Services (ES) processes has increased greatly in recent years, potentially improving environmental management and decision-making by describing the value of nature. ES models may be sensitive to different conditions and, therefore, should ideally be validated against observed data for their use as a decision-support instrument. However, outcomes from such ES modeling are barely validated, making it difficult to assess uncertainties associated with the modeling and justify their actual usefulness to develop generalizable management recommendations. This study proposes a framework for the systematic validation of one of such tools, the InVEST Nutrient Delivery Model (NDR) for nutrient retention estimates. The framework is divided into three stages: 1) running the NDR model inputs, processes, and outputs; 2) building a long-term reference dataset from open access water quality observations; and 3) using the reference data for model calibration and validation. We applied this framework to twenty watersheds in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, where data availability resembles thar of watersheds across the United States. Long-term water quality data from monitoring stations facilitated model calibration and validation. Our framework provided a reproducible method to linking the vast monitoring network in the U.S. and its territories for evaluating the InVEST's NDR model performance. Beyond the framework development, this study found that the InVEST NDR model explained 62.7 % and 79.3 % of the variance in the total nitrogen and total phosphorus between 2000 and 2022, respectively, supporting the suitability of the model for watershed scale ecosystem services assessment. The findings can also serve as a reference to support the use of InVEST for other locations in the tropics without publically available monitoring data.

Potential aboveground biomass increase in Brazilian Atlantic Forest fragments with climate change.

Fragmented tropical forest landscapes preserve much of the remaining biodiversity and carbon stocks. Climate change is expected to intensify droughts and increase fire hazard and fire intensities, thereby causing habitat deterioration, and losses of biodiversity and carbon stock losses. Understanding the trajectories that these landscapes may follow under increased climate pressure is imperative for establishing strategies for conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Here, we used a quantitative predictive modelling approach to project the spatial distribution of the aboveground biomass density (AGB) by the end of the 21st century across the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (AF) domain. To develop the models, we used the maximum entropy method with projected climate data to 2100, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 from the fifth Assessment Report. Our AGB models had a satisfactory performance (area under the curve > 0.75 and p value < .05). The models projected a significant increase of 8.5% in the total carbon stock. Overall, the projections indicated that 76.9% of the AF domain would have suitable climatic conditions for increasing biomass by 2100 considering the RCP 4.5 scenario, in the absence of deforestation. Of the existing forest fragments, 34.7% are projected to increase their AGB, while 2.6% are projected to have their AGB reduced by 2100. The regions likely to lose most AGB-up to 40% compared to the baseline-are found between latitudes 13° and 20° south. Overall, although climate change effects on AGB vary latitudinally for the 2071-2100 period under the RCP 4.5 scenario, our model indicates that AGB stocks can potentially increase across a large fraction of the AF. The patterns found here are recommended to be taken into consideration during the planning of restoration efforts, as part of climate change mitigation strategies in the AF and elsewhere in Brazil.

Classification of the Effort Index and Biomechanical Overload in Natural Trails of UNESCO Global Geoparks-A Network Perspective of Trails of the Araripe UGG (NE Brazil).

Natural trails in UNESCO Global Geopark territories show strong salutogenic, inclusive and interactive characteristics as potentials and opportunities for ecosystem health. It is essential to provide information to inform the hiker as to the characteristics of the environment and the attractions and challenges of the route. Based on a network analysis methodology we aimed to identify the indicators of centrality and strength of connection in order to classify the effort index and biomechanical overload of the Araripe UNESCO Global Geopark trails in Brazil. The results showed strong connection and centrality of the variables related to the biomechanical overload in the effort index. In the trail of Pontal de Cruz the altimetric variation and the surface of the ground are highlighted in the biomechanical overload that presented a horizontal course equivalent 2.6 times larger than the presented distance. In Sítio Fundão trail, the surface of the ground also stood out, increasing the exposure in 36% of the presented distance. On the Missão Velha Waterfall trail, the variable that stood out was the biomechanical overload on the knee, equivalent to a horizontal increase of 28% of the measured distance. The methodology presented sought to optimise the mapping, management and consolidation of a network of natural trails aggregated to a high geotouristic, scientific, educational, cultural and well-being potential as presented in the Araripe UGG territory.

Seasonal variation in the response of a monoecious crop to increased temperature and fertilizers.

Climate warming may affect the performance of plants directly through altering vegetative or reproductive traits, and indirectly through modifying interactions with their pollinators. On the other hand, the addition of fertilizers to the soil may increase the quantity and quality of floral rewards, favoring the visitation of pollinators and, consequently, the reproductive success of plants. However, it is still unknown whether fertilizers may counteract the effects of increased temperature on the vegetative, floral, and reproductive traits of plants, as well as on the interaction with their pollinators. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of the input of organic and synthetic fertilizers on several vegetative and floral traits, and on the rate of legitimate floral visitors and reproductive success of the squash during two seasons, under a scenario of an increase in ambient temperature. During the dry and the rainy seasons, three vegetative, eleven floral, and two reproductive traits, as well as the duration of visits and visitation rate of legitimate floral visitors were evaluated in squash plants distributed into six treatments in a bifactorial design: temperature (ambient or elevated temperature) and fertilizer (organic, synthetic or without supplementary fertilizers). Contrary to our predictions, we found that an increase of ~1.5°C in ambient temperature, positively influenced several vegetative, floral, and reproductive traits in this crop, and that organic fertilizers, in general, was not better than synthetic fertilizers in improving those traits. Interestingly, the response of the squash and indirectly on their legitimate floral visitors to the increase of temperature and the input of fertilizers vary widely among seasons, suggesting great temporal variation in plant-pollinator responses to temperature and nutrient availability, which makes food security more unpredictable.

Transformación en la Cobertura del Suelo de la Microcuenca La Cinco Mil, (Santander, Colombia) / Transformation in the Soil Coverage of the Cinco Mil Micro-Basin, (Santander, Colombia) / Transformação da Cobertura Vegetal da Microbacia La Cinco Mil, (Santander, Colômbia)

Resumen Introducción: la Serranía de los Yariguíes, ubicada en el centro del departamento de Santander, constituye uno de los ecosistemas estratégicos más relevantes del oriente de los Andes colombianos. Sin embargo, no hay información actualizada que describa cómo la deforestación y la sobreexplotación han afectado las coberturas de los ecosistemas de la microcuenca la Cinco Mil. Objetivo: establecer el cambio en las coberturas del suelo de la microcuenca la Cinco Mil para el periodo 2010-2016. Materiales y Métodos: se realizó un análisis multitemporal, a partir de la información disponible en el Sistema de Información Geográfica para la Planeación y el Ordenamiento Territorial Nacional del Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi, técnicas de clasificación visual a partir de imágenes de satélite y la metodología de tabulación cruzada desarrollada por Robert Pontius. Resultados: Las categorías de bosque denso y bosque fragmentado presentaron el mayor cambio total en una proporción de 11,79 % (1.178,79 ha) y 14,72 % (1.472,21 ha) respectivamente. Conclusiones: adelantar procesos de reconocimiento en campo, que permitan caracterizar las áreas naturales protegidas de los Yariguíes a través de sus pobladores, con el fin de identificar iniciativas que contribuyan a la conservación de los servicios ecosistémicos.

Abstract Introduction: Yariguíes's mountain range, located in the center of the department of Santander, constitutes one of the most relevant strategic ecosystems in the eastern Colombian Andes. However, there is no updated information that describes how deforestation and overexploitation have affected the ecosystem coverage of the Cinco Mil micro-basin. Objective: establish the change in the land cover of the Cinco Mil micro-basin for the 2010-2016 period. Materials and Methods: a multi-temporal analysis was carried out, based on the information available in the Geographic Information System for Planning and the National Territorial Ordering of the Agustín Codazzi Geographical Institute, techniques of visual classification based on satellite images and the cross-tabulation methodology developed by Robert Pontius. Results: The dense forest and fragmented forest categories presented the highest total change in a proportion of 11.79 % (1,178.79 ha) and 14.72 % (1,472.21 ha) respectively. Conclusions: advance reconnaissance processes in the field, which allow characterizing the protected natural areas of the Yariguíes through their inhabitants, in order to identify initiatives that contribute to the conservation of ecosystem services.

Resumo Introdução: a Serranía de los Yariguíes, localizada no centro do departamento de Santander, constitui um dos ecossistemas estratégicos mais relevantes do leste dos Andes colombianos. No entanto, não há informações atualizadas que descrevam como o desmatamento e a sobreexploração afetaram a cobertura do ecossistema da microbacia do Cinco Mil. Objetivo: constatar a alteração da ocupação do solo da microbacia La Cinco Mil para o período 2010-2016. Materiais e Métodos: esta pesquisa foi realizada uma análise multitemporal, com base nas informações disponíveis no Sistema de Informação Geográfica de Planejamento e Ordenamento Territorial Nacional do Instituto. Geográfico Agustín Codazzi, técnicas de classificação visual a partir de imagens de satélite e a metodologia de tabulação cruzada desenvolvida por Robert Pontius. Resultados: os resultados foram obtidos mostram que a cobertura florestal densa sofreu uma variação de 11,79 %, em decorrência do desenvolvimento de atividades antrópicas. Conclusões: realização de processos de reconhecimento em campo, que permitam caracterizar as áreas naturais protegidas dos Yariguíes por meio de seus habitantes, a fim de identificar iniciativas que contribuam para a conservação dos serviços ecossistêmicos.

Epidemiology, Biodiversity, and Technological Trajectories in the Brazilian Amazon: From Malaria to COVID-19.

The Amazon biome is under severe threat due to increasing deforestation rates and loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services while sustaining a high burden of neglected tropical diseases. Approximately two thirds of this biome are located within Brazilian territory. There, socio-economic and environmental landscape transformations are linked to the regional agrarian economy dynamics, which has developed into six techno-productive trajectories (TTs). These TTs are the product of the historical interaction between Peasant and Farmer and Rancher practices, technologies and rationalities. This article investigates the distribution of the dominant Brazilian Amazon TTs and their association with environmental degradation and vulnerability to neglected tropical diseases. The goal is to provide a framework for the joint debate of the local economic, environmental and health dimensions. We calculated the dominant TT for each municipality in 2017. Peasant trajectories (TT1, TT2, and TT3) are dominant in ca. fifty percent of the Amazon territory, mostly concentrated in areas covered by continuous forest where malaria is an important morbidity and mortality cause. Cattle raising trajectories are associated with higher deforestation rates. Meanwhile, Farmer and Rancher economies are becoming dominant trajectories, comprising large scale cattle and grain production. These trajectories are associated with rapid biodiversity loss and a high prevalence of neglected tropical diseases, such as leishmaniasis, Aedes-borne diseases and Chagas disease. Overall, these results defy simplistic views that the dominant development trajectory for the Amazon will optimize economic, health and environmental indicators. This approach lays the groundwork for a more integrated narrative consistent with the economic history of the Brazilian Amazon.

Habitat Quality Differentiation and Consequences for Ecosystem Service Provision of an Amazonian Hyperdominant Tree Species.

Ecosystem services of Amazonian forests are disproportionally produced by a limited set of hyperdominant tree species. Yet the spatial variation in the delivery of ecosystem services by individual hyperdominant species across their distribution ranges and corresponding environmental gradients is poorly understood. Here, we use the concept of habitat quality to unravel the effect of environmental gradients on seed production and aboveground biomass (AGB) of the Brazil nut, one of Amazonia's largest and most long-lived hyperdominants. We find that a range of climate and soil gradients create trade-offs between density and fitness of Brazil nut trees. Density responses to environmental gradients were in line with predictions under the Janzen-Connell and Herms-Mattson hypotheses, whereas tree fitness responses were in line with resource requirements of trees over their life cycle. These trade-offs resulted in divergent responses in area-based seed production and AGB. While seed production and AGB of individual trees (i.e., fitness) responded similarly to most environmental gradients, they showed opposite tendencies to tree density for almost half of the gradients. However, for gradients creating opposite fitness-density responses, area-based seed production was invariable, while trends in area-based AGB tended to mirror the response of tree density. We conclude that while the relation between environmental gradients and tree density is generally indicative of the response of AGB accumulation in a given area of forest, this is not necessarily the case for fruit production.

Edible Fruit Plant Species in the Amazon Forest Rely Mostly on Bees and Beetles as Pollinators.

Edible fruit plants of tropical forests are important for the subsistence of traditional communities. Understanding the most important pollinators related to fruit and seed production of these plants is a necessary step to protect their pollination service and assure the food security of these communities. However, there are many important knowledge gaps related to floral biology and pollination in megadiverse tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon Forest, due mainly to the high number of plant species. Our study aims to indicate the main pollinators of edible plants (mainly fruits) of the Amazon forest. For this, we adopted a threefold strategy: we built a list of edible plant species, determined the pollination syndrome of each species, and performed a review on the scientific literature searching for their pollinator/visitors. The list of plant species was determined from two specialized publications on Amazon fruit plants, totaling 188 species. The pollination syndrome was determined for 161 species. The syndromes most frequently found among the analyzed species were melittophily (bee pollination), which was found in 101 of the analyzed plant species (54%) and cantharophily (beetle pollination; 26 species; 14%). We also found 238 pollinator/visitor taxa quoted for 52 (28%) plant species in previous publications, with 124 taxa belonging to Apidae family (bees; 52%), mainly from Meliponini tribe (58 taxa; 47%). Knowledge about pollinators is an important step to help on preserving their ecosystem services and maintaining the productivity of fruit trees in the Amazon.

Plant-pollinator interactions in urban ecosystems worldwide: A comprehensive review including research funding and policy actions.

Urbanization has rapidly increased in recent decades and the negative effects on biodiversity have been widely reported. Urban green areas can contribute to improving human well-being, maintaining biodiversity, and ecosystem services (e.g. pollination). Here we examine the evolution of studies on plant-pollinator interactions in urban ecosystems worldwide, reviewing also research funding and policy actions. We documented a significant increase in the scientific production on the theme in recent years, especially in the temperate region; tropical urban ecosystems are still neglected. Plant-pollinator interactions are threatened by urbanization in complex ways, depending on the studied group (plant or pollinator [generalist or specialist]) and landscape characteristics. Several research opportunities emerge from our review. Research funding and policy actions to pollination/pollinator in urban ecosystems are still scarce and concentrated in developed countries/temperate regions. To make urban green spaces contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services, transdisciplinary approaches (ecological-social-economic-cultural) are needed.

Can agroecological management increase functional diversity of birds in rice fields? / ¿Puede el manejo agroecológico incrementar la diversidad funcional de aves en campos de arroz?

Introduction: Recognition of the variety of ecosystem services that biodiversity performs in agroecosystems is one of the basic principles of agroecology. Because indices of functional diversity may be directly related with ecosystem services, an assessment of functional diversity can be useful for evaluating ecosystem services provided under agroecological management. Objective: We compared functional diversity of birds found in rice fields under conventional and agroecological management in the rice zone of Santa Fe Province, Argentina. Our objective was to determine whether agroecological management of rice is associated with a higher functional diversity and a different functional composition of birds than conventional management. Methods: We surveyed birds eight times, roughly every 15 days between November 2017 and March 2018, from beginning of sowing to before harvest, in both types of rice fields. Birds were sampled by a combined technique of line transects and point counts at four sites in each type of management. We calculated indices of functional diversity and composition based on morphologic and trophic attributes of birds detected in each type of field. Results: Functional richness, divergence and dispersion were higher under agroecological management. Only differences in functional richness between managements reflected differences in species richness. Community-level weighted means of trait values by sample varied between management types. An insectivorous diet, pursuit as a foraging method, and air and shrubs as foraging substrates were traits best represented under agroecological management. Conclusions: Our results suggest that agroecological management of rice crops is related with a higher functional diversity of birds than conventional practices, suggesting that agroecological management may enhance the provision of ecosystem services by birds in rice agroecosystems.

Introducción: El reconocimiento de la variedad de servicios ecosistémicos de la biodiversidad en los agroecosistemas es uno de los principios básicos de la agroecología. Debido a que los índices de diversidad funcional pueden estar directamente relacionados con los servicios ecosistémicos, la evaluación de la diversidad funcional representa una estrategia adecuada para evaluar estos servicios en agroecosistemas bajo manejo agroecológico. Objetivo: Se comparó la diversidad funcional de aves entre arroceras bajo manejo convencional y agroecológico en la zona arrocera de la provincia de Santa Fe, Argentina. El objetivo fue determinar si el manejo agroecológico del arroz se asocia con una mayor diversidad funcional y con una diferente composición funcional de aves en relación con el manejo convencional. Métodos: Se muestrearon las aves mediante 8 conteos repetidos aproximadamente cada 15 días entre noviembre 2017 y marzo 2018, desde el comienzo de la siembra hasta antes de la cosecha, en ambos tipos de arroceras. Los muestreos fueron realizados mediante una técnica mixta combinando transectas de línea y puntos de conteo en cuatro sitios por tipo de manejo. Se calcularon índices de diversidad y composición funcional con base en atributos morfológicos y tróficos de las aves registradas. Resultados: La riqueza, la divergencia y la dispersión funcional fueron más altos bajo manejo agroecológico. Solamente en el caso de la riqueza funcional las diferencias reflejaron únicamente la variación de la riqueza de especies. La media ponderada a nivel de ensamble de los valores de los rasgos por muestra varió entre los tipos de manejo, estando la dieta insectívora, la persecución como método de forrajeo, y el aire y los arbustos como sustrato de forrajeo mejor representados bajo manejo agroecológico. Conclusión: Los resultados sugirieron que el manejo agroecológico del arroz se relaciona con una mayor diversidad funcional de aves que las prácticas de manejo convencional, sugiriendo que el manejo agroecológico puede mejorar la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos por aves en cultivos de arroz.

Captura de carbono en biomasa de sistemas de uso del suelo, municipio de Yopal, Casanare, Colombia / Carbon capture regarding biomass from rural land use systems near the municipality of Yopal, Casanare, Colombia / Captura de carbono na biomassa de sistemas de uso da terra, município de Yopal, Casanare, Colômbia

Resumen El cambio climático, ocasionado por el incremento en la concentración de gases efecto invernadero (GEI), genera alteraciones en el clima del planeta, aumentando la temperatura media global, lo que afecta patrones de precipitación. El área de estudio se ubicó en el Municipio de Yopal, corregimiento Tacarimena, compuesta por ocho veredas, la cual presenta clima cálido - húmedo con promedio de precipitación anual de 2270 mm; temporada seca de diciembre-marzo y lluviosa de abril-noviembre y alturas inferiores a 380 m. En concordancia con la necesidad del desarrollo bajo en carbono, la presente investigación estima la biomasa arriba y abajo del suelo y con éstas el carbono total almacenado en siete sistemas de uso del suelo: 1) plátano con sombrío (SAF+ plátano), 2) cacao con sombrío (Ca+S), 3) cítricos (C), 4) sistema silvopastoril bajo (SSPB), 5) sistema silvopastoril alto (SSPA), 6) bosques de galería (BG), y 7) mata de monte (MM). Se trabajó con diseño experimental completamente al azar con cinco repeticiones, para un total de 35 unidades experimentales. Se establecieron parcelas temporales de muestreo, tomando datos en 832 árboles de 66 especies botánicas. Se estimó la biomasa arriba del suelo mediante modelos alometricos, utilizando datos de campo (diámetro a la altura del pecho dap y la altura total). La biomasa abajo del suelo (raíces) se estimó empleando el modelo general para bosques tropicales. Todos los usos del suelo en estudio ofrecen el servicio ecosistémico de captura de carbono, siendo el BG y la MM los de mayor carbono, mientras que el SAF+plátano almacenó la menor cantidad de carbono. Potenciales cambios de sistemas productivos a sistemas forestales (BG y MM) implican una ganancia de carbono (adicionalidad), mientras que los cambios contrarios, es decir deforestación, representan emisiones de CO2. Estos resultados son claves para la orientación a políticas y proyectos de captura de carbono.

Abstract Climate change caused by increased greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration causes alterations in the planet's climate and increases the average global temperature, thereby affecting rainfall patterns. This study's target area was the town of Tacarimena in the municipality of Yopal; it has eight rural areas. The area is located around 380 masl and has a warm, humid climate, a mean annual rainfall of 2,270 mm, a dry season between December and March and a rainy season from April to November. This research has estimated seven land-use systems' above- and below-ground biomass and total carbon storage in line with a low-carbon development policy: 1) plantain with shade (SAF + plantain), 2) cocoa with shade (Ca + S), 3) citrus (C), 4) low-lying silvopastoral system (LSS), 5) high-lying silvopastoral system (HSS), 6) gallery forest (GF) and 7) bush (B). A completely randomised experimental design with five repetitions was used, giving 35 experimental units. Temporary sampling plots were established for taking information regarding 832 trees from 66 botanical species. Allometric models were used for estimating above-ground biomass using field data/measurements (diameter at breast height (DBH) and total height (TH). A general tropical forest model was used for estimating below-ground biomass. All the land-use systems being studied had the essential ecosystem service of carbon capture/CO2 sequestration where GF and B had the highest carbon storage; on the contrary, SAF + plantain stored the lowest amount of carbon. Changing from production to forestry systems (GF and B) implies increased carbon capture (additionality), whereas the opposite (i.e. deforestation) represents CO2 emission. Such results represent a key input for policy design and carbon capture projects.

Resumo A mudança climática, causada pelo aumento da concentração de gases de efeito estufa (GEEs), gera alterações no clima do planeta e um aumento na temperatura média global, afetando os padrões de precipitação. A área de estudo foi localizada no município de Yopal, distrito Tacarimena, composto por oito vilarejos, que tem um clima quente - úmido com precipitação anual média de 2.270 mm, além de uma estação seca de dezembro a março e uma estação chuvosa entre abril e novembro. De acordo com a necessidade de desenvolvimento baixo em carbono, esta pesquisa estima a biomassa acima e abaixo do solo e com eles o total de carbono armazenado em sete sistemas de uso da terra: 1) banana com sombra (SAF + banana), 2) cacau sombreado (Ca + S), 3) cítricos (C), 4) sistema silvopastoril baixo (SSPB), 5) sistema silvopastoril alto (SSPA), 6) floresta riparia (BG), e 7) fragmento de floresta (MM). Desenvolveu-se um desenho experimental inteiramente casualizado com cinco repetições, totalizando 35 unidades experimentais. Parcelas temporárias de amostragem foram estabelecidas, tomando dados de 832 árvores de 66 espécies botânicas. A biomassa acima do solo foi estimada com modelos alométricos, inserindo os dados de campo: diâmetro à altura do peito (dap) e a altura total. A biomassa abaixo do solo foi estimada usando um modelo geral para florestas tropicais. Todos os usos da terra em estudo oferecem o serviço ecossistêmico de captura de carbono, sendo BG e MM os que apresentam o maior carbono, enquanto que SAF + banana armazenou a menor quantidade de carbono. Mudanças potenciais de sistemas de produção para sistemas florestais (BG e MM) implicam em ganho de carbono (adicionalidade), entanto que as mudanças opostas, como o desmatamento, representam emissões de CO2. Esses resultados são chaves para orientar políticas e projetos de captura de carbono.

Integrated valuation of alternative land use scenarios in the agricultural ecosystem of a watershed with limited available data, in the Pampas region of Argentina.

Historically, Argentina has been among the world leaders in the production and export of agricultural products. The country is increasingly confronted with severe conflicts that originate from trade-offs between actors involved in the agricultural sector. This work presents an integrated valuation of alternative land use scenarios in the Carcarañá River Lower Basin, offering a way to link the various value domains by involving a broad set of multidimensional indicators and stakeholder concerns. Twenty-one indicators that address all three pillars of sustainability, environmental, economic and social, are selected and quantified. Three scenarios are analyzed: the Actual scenario, dominated by industrial-scale agriculture that primarily yields soybeans, maize and wheat; a Conservation Agriculture scenario, promoting permanent soil cover by crop rotation and the implementation of untreated buffer zones around the cities; and a Short Sighted Exploitation scenario, contributing to short-term profits for agribusiness but increasing pressure on the natural resources. A decision support system is implemented in the Driver, Pressure, State, and Ecosystem Services indicator framework. The Conservation Agriculture scenario is identified as the best option by stakeholders grouped into Regulatory State, Civil Society and Consensus perspectives. A ranking change occurs when the valuation is carried out from the Private Sector point of view and the Actual scenario comes in first position. We dare to say that the methodology presented in this work is a socio-technical innovation that can contribute to the process needed to achieve broad consensus among the agribusiness actors in Argentina.

Impacts of Agricultural Practices and Individual Life Characteristics on Ecosystem Services: A Case Study on Family Farmers in the Context of an Amazonian Pioneer Front.

In tropical forests farmers are among the most important agents of deforestation. At the interface between societies and their environment, ecosystem services (ES) is an integrated working framework through which natural and anthropogenic dimensions can be addressed. Here, we aimed to understand to what extent farmers impact ES availability. Based on case studies in three locations in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest, we performed statistical analyses at 135 sampling points and 110 farms to link socioeconomic and ES data, both derived from field work. The socioeconomic data characterized agricultural production, sociological characteristics, and quality of life. ES data were obtained from statistical analyses that yielded a multiple ES indicator for each sampling point and farm. Our results produced three main findings: first, the establishment of ES associations is due more to agricultural production characteristics than to sociological and quality-of-life factors. Second, the impact of agricultural production on ES availability depends on the level of total incomes. An increase in incomes causes a decrease in the forest cover that provides many ES and an increase in other areas that provide fewer ES. Finally, our analyses show a very strong site effect that probably expresses the heterogeneity of the biophysical contexts, but also the importance for ES availability of the historical depth of deforestation and/or the role of specific public policies. Finding ways of producing an alternative impact on ES availability and establishing specific ES associations will therefore depend more on changes in the global political context than in individual practices.

Sweat bees on hot chillies: provision of pollination services by native bees in traditional slash-and-burn agriculture in the Yucatán Peninsula of tropical Mexico.

Traditional tropical agriculture often entails a form of slash-and-burn land management that may adversely affect ecosystem services such as pollination, which are required for successful crop yields. The Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico has a >4000 year history of traditional slash-and-burn agriculture, termed 'milpa'. Hot 'Habanero' chilli is a major pollinator-dependent crop that nowadays is often grown in monoculture within the milpa system.We studied 37 local farmers' chilli fields (sites) to evaluate the effects of landscape composition on bee communities. At 11 of these sites, we undertook experimental pollination treatments to quantify the pollination of chilli. We further explored the relationships between landscape composition, bee communities and pollination service provision to chilli.Bee species richness, particularly species of the family Apidae, was positively related to the amount of forest cover. Species diversity decreased with increasing proportion of crop land surrounding each sampling site. Sweat bees of the genus Lasioglossum were the most abundant bee taxon in chilli fields and, in contrast to other bee species, increased in abundance with the proportion of fallow land, gardens and pastures which are an integral part of the milpa system.There was an average pollination shortfall of 21% for chilli across all sites; yet the shortfall was unrelated to the proportion of land covered by crops. Rather, chilli pollination was positively related to the abundance of Lasioglossum bees, probably an important pollinator of chilli, as well indirectly to the proportion of fallow land, gardens and pastures that promote Lasioglossum abundance. Synthesis and applications. Current, low-intensity traditional slash-and-burn (milpa) agriculture provides Lasioglossum spp. pollinators for successful chilli production; fallow land, gardens and pasture therefore need to be valued as important habitats for these and related ground-nesting bee species. However, the negative impact of agriculture on total bee species diversity highlights how agricultural intensification is likely to reduce pollination services to crops, including chilli. Indeed, natural forest cover is vital in tropical Yucatán to maintain a rich assemblage of bee species and the provision of pollination services for diverse crops and wild flowers.

Decline of Ecological Functions Performed by Dung Beetles in Areas of Atlantic Forest and Contribution of Rollers and Tunnellers in Organic Matter Removal.

The feeding behavior of the Scarabaeinae subfamily has positive implications on ecosystem functioning. We characterize the necrophagous and coprophagous dung beetle assemblages, and we quantify the removal of swine carrion and domestic dog dung in two areas with different degrees of environmental disturbance in an Atlantic Forest remnant located in Florianopolis, SC, Brazil. The experiment was setup at eight sampling points in each area, by installing one control and two collection and removal assessment arenas for collecting necrophagous dung beetles while simultaneously evaluating the removal of carrion (50 g of rotting pork for 48 h). We used the same sample design with 50 g of domestic dog dung for evaluating the coprophagous dung beetle assemblage and dung removal. Our results indicated that necrophagous dung beetles were more sensitive to environmental disturbance owing to a lower richness and changes in species dominance, which resulted in a lower removal in the areas with greater disturbance and lower environmental quality (39.6% carrion removal) in relation to less disturbed areas (75.1% carrion removal). The dung beetle assemblages were similar in structure and removal rates between areas (80% of dung was removed). In assessing the influence of richness, abundance, and biomass of dung beetles on resource removal both for the whole assemblage and for each separate functional guild, only the abundance and biomass of rollers contributed significantly to dung removal. These results highlight the implications of environmental disturbances on the functions of dung beetles, which respond differently according to the resource they use.

Trade-offs in water and carbon ecosystem services with land-use changes in grasslands.

Increasing pressures for food, fiber, and fuel continue to drive global land-use changes. Efforts to optimize ecosystem services under alternative land uses are often hampered by the complex interactions and trade-offs among them. We examined the effects of land-use changes on ecosystem carbon storage and groundwater recharge in grasslands of Argentina and the United States to (1) understand the relationships between both services, (2) predict their responses to vegetation shifts across environmental gradients, and (3) explore how market or policy incentives for ecosystem services could affect land-use changes. A trade-off of ecosystem services was evident in most cases, with woody encroachment increasing carbon storage (+29 Mg C/ha) but decreasing groundwater recharge (-7.3 mm/yr) and conversions to rain-fed cultivation driving opposite changes (-32 Mg C/ha vs. +13 mm/yr). In contrast, crops irrigated with ground water tended to reduce both services compared to the natural grasslands they replaced. Combining economic values of the agricultural products together with the services, we highlight potentials for relatively modest financial incentives for ecosystem services to abate land-use changes and for incentives for carbon to drive land-use decisions over those of water. Our findings also identify key opportunities and caveats for some win-win and lose-lose land-use changes for more integrative and sustainable strategies for land management.

The Dependence of Crops for Pollinators and the Economic Value of Pollination in Brazil.

Food production is challenged by changes in climate and land use and expanding human population growth. Proper pollination can increase the production and quality of fruit, nut, oil, and fiber crops. We reviewed crop dependence on pollinators and estimated the economic value of pollination per year for each crop in Brazil. We analyzed 141 crops and found that 85 depend on pollinators. Almost one-third of these crops have an essential or great dependence on pollinators. The economic contribution of pollinators totals ∼30% (∼US$12 billion) of the total annual agricultural income of the dependent crops (totalizing almost US$45 billion). However, half of these figures includes soybean crop (US$5.7 billion of pollinators' contribution and US$22 billion of annual income). Soybean was considered as having a modest dependence on pollinators, but this remains controversial because pollinator dependence might vary among different varieties cultivated in Brazil. Moreover, we have no information about pollinator dependence regarding some important crops, showing the urgent need for basic research into reproductive biology and pollination ecology.

Co-benefits, trade-offs, barriers and policies for greenhouse gas mitigation in the agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector.

The agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector is responsible for approximately 25% of anthropogenic GHG emissions mainly from deforestation and agricultural emissions from livestock, soil and nutrient management. Mitigation from the sector is thus extremely important in meeting emission reduction targets. The sector offers a variety of cost-competitive mitigation options with most analyses indicating a decline in emissions largely due to decreasing deforestation rates. Sustainability criteria are needed to guide development and implementation of AFOLU mitigation measures with particular focus on multifunctional systems that allow the delivery of multiple services from land. It is striking that almost all of the positive and negative impacts, opportunities and barriers are context specific, precluding generic statements about which AFOLU mitigation measures have the greatest promise at a global scale. This finding underlines the importance of considering each mitigation strategy on a case-by-case basis, systemic effects when implementing mitigation options on the national scale, and suggests that policies need to be flexible enough to allow such assessments. National and international agricultural and forest (climate) policies have the potential to alter the opportunity costs of specific land uses in ways that increase opportunities or barriers for attaining climate change mitigation goals. Policies governing practices in agriculture and in forest conservation and management need to account for both effective mitigation and adaptation and can help to orient practices in agriculture and in forestry towards global sharing of innovative technologies for the efficient use of land resources. Different policy instruments, especially economic incentives and regulatory approaches, are currently being applied however, for its successful implementation it is critical to understand how land-use decisions are made and how new social, political and economic forces in the future will influence this process.