Career Length After Surgically Treated ACL Plus Collateral Ligament Injury in Elite Athletes.

BACKGROUND: Limited data are available regarding career length and competition level after combined anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and medial- or lateral-sided surgeries in elite athletes. PURPOSE: To evaluate career length after surgical treatment of combined ACL plus medial collateral ligament (MCL) and ACL plus posterolateral corner (PLC) injuries in elite athletes and, in a subgroup analysis of male professional soccer players, to compare career length and competition level after combined ACL+MCL or ACL+PLC surgeries with a cohort who underwent isolated ACL reconstruction (ACLR). STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: A consecutive cohort of elite athletes undergoing combined ACL+MCL and ACL+PLC surgery was analyzed between February 2001 and October 2019. A subgroup of male elite soccer players from this population was compared with a previously identified cohort having had isolated primary ACLR without other ligament surgery. A minimum 2-year follow-up was required. Outcome measures were career length and competition level. RESULTS: A total of 98 elite athletes met the inclusion criteria, comprising 50 ACL+PLC and 48 ACL+MCL surgeries. The mean career length after surgical treatment of combined ACL+MCL and ACL+PLC injuries was 4.5 years. Return-to-play (RTP) time was significantly longer for ACL+PLC injuries (12.8 months; P = .019) than for ACL+MCL injuries (10.9 months). In the subgroup analysis of soccer players, a significantly lower number of players with combined ACL+PLC surgery were able to RTP (88%; P = .003) compared with 100% for ACL+MCL surgery and 97% for isolated ACLR, as well as requiring an almost 3 months longer RTP timeline (12.9 months; P = .002) when compared with the isolated ACL (10.2 months) and combined ACL+MCL (10.0 months) groups. However, career length and competition level were not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSION: Among elite athletes, the mean career length after surgical treatment of combined ACL+MCL and ACL+PLC injuries was 4.5 years. Professional soccer players with combined ACL+PLC surgery returned at a lower rate and required a longer RTP time when compared with the players with isolated ACL or combined ACL+MCL injuries. However, those who did RTP had the same career longevity and competition level.

Development of sport policy and practice recommendations for pregnant, postpartum and parenting Canadian high-performance athletes.

Our objective is to describe the development of evidence-based policy and practice recommendations for pregnant, postpartum and parenting Canadian high-performance athletes. A community-based participatory research approach was employed as the study design, and data were generated via a rapid review of existing sport policy for pregnant and postpartum athletes, followed by an extensive consultation and engagement process with key sport stakeholders via survey and one-on-one and group interviews. 102 sport stakeholders participated via the survey (n=56), individual and group interviews (n=33), and follow-up interviews (n=13). Individuals represented a range of summer/winter Olympic and Paralympic athletes, medical and support staff, National Sport Organisations and Sport Canada representatives. Seven evidence-based policy and practice recommendations were developed for Sport Canada decision-makers. Recommendations include the need for Sport Canada to (a) establish two new cards for pregnant and parenting athletes, (b) develop a policy to support pregnant, postpartum and parenting athletes, (c) create new funding sources for facilities that accommodate the needs of pregnant, postpartum and parenting athletes, (d) create new funding source for athletes to train and/or compete during infants' first year, (e) develop training and educational modules related to pregnant, postpartum and parenting athletes, (f) increase visibility of pregnant, postpartum and parenting athletes and (g) invest in research on high-performance sport participation during and following pregnancy. The collaborative processes employed in this research serve as a model for sports organisations to develop evidence-based policies and practices that can support pregnant, postpartum and parenting athletes.

Effects of Ten Biofeedback Sessions on Athletes' Physiological, Psychological, and Cognitive Functioning: A Randomized Controlled Trial with International Tennis Players.

Our aim in this study was to test the effect of 10 sessions of biofeedback (BFB) on physiological, psychological, and cognitive functioning of international tennis players. In this randomized controlled trial, we recruited 16 international tennis players (11 male, 5 female; Mage = 17.31, SD = 0.87 years), who were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (IG; n = 8) or a control group (CG; n = 8). Those in the IG received 10 multimodal BFB sessions over four weeks, while those in the CG received no intervention. We assessed physiological, psychological, and cognitive parameters before and after the intervention and found a positive effect for skin temperature, state anxiety, and cognitive performance in the IG versus the CG. We provide preliminary data that 10 sessions of multimodal BFB improved cognitive functions and reduced anxiety symptoms in international tennis players. Future investigators should consider increasing sample size, incorporating an active CG, and studying these effects across diverse athletic disciplines.

The effect of electro-magnetic-energy-regulation therapy on subjective sleep among elite players in Norwegian women's football.

The current study investigated if Bio-Electro-Magnetic-Energy-Regulation (BEMER) therapy is affecting subjective sleep among a sample of 21 elite female football players in a Norwegian top series club. Subjective sleep was measured each day over a period of 273 consecutive days by using a smartphone application, PM Reporter Pro, which scheduled push messages to remind the participants to report sleep every morning. The study was conducted as a quasi-experimental design, with a control period before the introduction of BEMER therapy that lasted for 3 months, followed by an intervention period where BEMER therapy was used that lasted for 5 months. The collected data from the players in the control period served as their control compared to the data collected from the players in the intervention period. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) with False Discovery Rate adjusted p-values show that subjective sleep duration and subjective sleep quality are significantly reduced on game nights, both in the control period and in the experiment period. The results also show that subjective sleep duration and subjective sleep quality significantly increase in the experiment period compared to the control period. The findings indicate that BEMER therapy might serve as a tool to improve sleep.

Optimal Drop Heights for Determining Reactive Strength Performance in Youth-Is 1 Drop Height Sufficient to Generate Trustworthy Conclusions for Training Practice?

This study critically examines the suitability of using a single drop height to assess the reaction strength index in trained and active participants, a key component of athletic performance. Using a cross-sectional design, 377 trained (n = 163) and active (n = 214) participants aged 14-18 years performing drop jumps from 4 different heights (24, 32, 40, and 48 cm) were studied. The primary aim was to explore the individual differences in reaction strength index at these heights and to assess whether a single height can reliably represent stretch-shortening cycle capabilities. While the repeated measures analysis of variance did not reveal any significant differences, the Bland-Altmann analysis revealed significant individual discrepancies between the performance of the drop heights, resulting in a mean absolute error of 32.1 and a mean absolute percentage error of 20.6%. These results strongly suggest that a single drop height is not sufficient to determine performance in the stretch-shortening cycle. This has important practical implications as it can lead to underestimates of performance trends. The study advocates the inclusion of a range of drop heights in routine testing to accurately measure reactive power and thus improve the effectiveness of individualized training programs for young athletes/active youth.

A New Versatile Jig for the Calibration and Validation of Force Metrics with Instrumented Paddles in Sprint Kayaking.

The interest in using new technologies to obtain recordings of on-water kinetic variables for assessing the performance of elite sprint kayakers has increased over the last decades but systematic approaches are warranted to ensure the validity and reliability of these measures. This study has an innovative approach, and the aim was to develop a new versatile jig including reference force sensors for both the calibration and validation of mutual static and dynamic stroke forces as measured with instrumented paddles at the high force levels used in elite sprint kayaking. METHODS: A jig was constructed using a modified gym weight stack and a frame consisting of aluminum profiles permitting a fastening of custom-made kayak paddle shaft and blade support devices with certified force transducers combined with a data acquisition system to record blade and hand forces during static (constant load) and dynamic conditions (by paddle stroke simulation). A linear motion path incorporating a ball-bearing equipped carriage with sensors for the measurement of vertical distance and horizontal displacement was attached to the frame for recordings of various position measures on the paddle. The jig design with all components is extensively described to permit replication. The procedures for assessing the accuracy of the jig force instrumentation are reported, and with one brand of instrumented paddle used as an example, methods are described for force calibration and validation during static and dynamic conditions. RESULTS: The results illustrate that the measured force with the jig instrumentation was similar to the applied force, calculated from the applied accurate mass (within a -1.4 to 1.8% difference) and similar to the force as calculated from the applied mass with the weight stack (within a -0.57 to 1.16% difference). The jig was suitable for the calibration and validation of forces in a range relevant for elite sprint kayaking under both static and dynamic conditions. During static conditions with a force direction equal to the calibration conditions and a force range from 98 to 590 N, all values for the instrumented paddle were within a -3.4 to 3.0% difference from the jig sensor values and 28 of 36 values were within ±2%. During dynamic conditions with paddle stroke simulations at 60 and 100 strokes/min and a target peak force of 400 N, the common force variables as measured by the instrumented paddle were not significantly different from the same measures by the jig (values at 100 strokes/min: peak force; 406.9 ± 18.4 vs. 401.9 ± 17.2 N, mean force; 212.8 ± 15.4 vs. 212.0 ± 14.4 N, time to peak force; 0.17 ± 0.02 vs. 0.18 ± 0.02 s, force impulse; 90.8 ± 11.2 vs. 90.5 ± 10.8 Ns, impulse duration; 0.43 ± 0.03 vs. 0.43 ± 0.03 s). CONCLUSION: A novel jig with several new functions is presented that enables the calibration and validation of force measurements with instrumented paddles by providing standardized conditions for calibration and force validation during both static and dynamic conditions in a force range relevant to elite sprint kayaking.

Training for Elite Team-Pursuit Track Cyclists-Part II: A Comparison of Preparation Phases in Consecutive World-Record-Breaking Seasons.

PURPOSE: To compare the training characteristics of an elite team pursuit cycling squad in the 3-month preparation phases prior to 2 successive world-record (WR) performances. METHODS: Training data of 5 male track endurance cyclists (mean [SD]; age 23.4 [3.46] y; body mass 80.2 [2.74] kg; 4.5 [0.17] W·kg-1 at LT2; maximal aerobic power 6.2 [0.27] W·kg-1; maximal oxygen uptake 65.9 [2.89] mL·kg-1·min-1) were analyzed with weekly total training volume by training type and heart rate, power output, and torque intensity distributions calculated with reference to the respective WRs' performance requirements. RESULTS: Athletes completed 805 (82.81) and 725 (68.40) min·wk-1 of training, respectively, in each season. In the second season, there was a 32% increase in total track volume, although track sessions were shorter (ie, greater frequency) in the second season. A pyramidal intensity distribution was consistent across both seasons, with 81% of training, on average, performed below LT1 power output each week, whereas 6% of training was performed above LT2. Athletes accumulated greater volume above WR team pursuit lead power (2.4% vs 0.9%) and torque (6.2% vs 3.2%) in 2019. In one athlete, mean single-leg-press peak rate of force development was 71% and 46% higher at mid- and late-phases, respectively, during the preparation period. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide novel insights into the common and contrasting methods contributing to successive WR team pursuit performances. Greater accumulation of volume above race-specific power and torque (eg, team pursuit lead), as well as improved neuromuscular force-generating capacities, may be worthy of investigation for implementation in training programs.

Training for Elite Team-Pursuit Track Cyclists-Part I: A Profile of General Training Characteristics.

PURPOSE: To profile the training characteristics of an elite team pursuit cycling squad and assess variations in training intensity and load accumulation across the 36-week period prior to a world-record performance at the 2018 Commonwealth Games. METHODS: Training data of 5 male track endurance cyclists (mean [SD]; age 21.9 [3.52] y; 4.4 [0.16] W·kg-1 at anaerobic threshold; 6.2 [0.28] W·kg-1 maximal oxygen uptake 68.7 [2.99] mL kg·min-1) were analyzed with weekly total training volume and heart rate, power output, and torque intensity distributions calculated with reference to their 3:49.804 min:s.ms performance requirements for a 4-km team pursuit. RESULTS: Athletes completed 543 (37) h-1 of training across 436 (16) sessions. On-bike activities accounted for 69.9% of all training sessions, with participants cycling 11,246 (1139) km-1 in the training period of interest, whereas 12.7% of sessions involved gym/strength training. A pyramidal intensity distribution was evident with over 65% and 70% of training, respectively, performed at low-intensity zone heart rate and power output, whereas 5.3% and 7.7% of training was performed above anaerobic threshold. The athletes accumulated 4.4% of total training volume at, or above, their world-record team pursuit lead position torque (55 N·m). CONCLUSIONS: These data provide updated and novel insight to the power and torque demands and load accumulation contributing to world-record team pursuit performance. Although the observed pyramidal intensity distribution is common in endurance sports, the lack of shift toward a polarized intensity distribution during taper and competition peaking differs from previous research.

Nightmares in Swiss elite athletes: Associated factors.

Nightmares, defined as extremely dysphoric dreams, can cause significant distress in everyday life if they occur frequently. Their aetiology is based on a disposition-stress model. As elite athletes often experience high stress levels, the present study investigated factors that might be associated with nightmare frequency in a large cohort of 2297 Swiss elite athletes (1066 women, 1231 men) with a mean age of 22.05 ± 7.53 years. In total, about 6% of the athletes reported frequent nightmares (once a week or more often). We found that well-established factors like female gender and general stress levels were related to nightmare frequency. To a smaller extent, the number of training hours, lost training days due to illness, and having early training sessions were also associated with nightmare frequency. Sport discipline was not related to nightmare frequency. An unexpected finding was the association between late alcohol intake 4 hr prior to bedtime and nightmare frequency. Our findings support the idea that stress related to practicing sports might affect nightmare frequency. Future research should study whether inventions designed for athletes suffering from frequent nightmares are beneficial for them and might even improve their athletic performance.

Determination of the frequency of individuals with broadly cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies against PRRSV in the sow population under field conditions.

BACKGROUND: Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) is a significant swine pathogen, yet the immune response components contributing to protection remain incompletely understood. Broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies (bNAs) may play a crucial role in preventing reinfections by heterologous viruses, although their occurrence is considered low under both field and experimental conditions. This study aimed to assess the frequency of sows exhibiting bNAs against PRRSV under field conditions and to analyze the epidemiological factors influencing the occurrence of these elite neutralizers. Blood samples were collected from breeding sows across eleven unrelated pig farms, with samples categorized by parity. Serum obtained was utilized in virus neutralization assays (VNs) against six PRRSV field isolates and two MLV strains. RESULTS: Approximately 7% of the sows exhibited neutralization activity against all viruses in the panel, with a geometric mean of the titer (GMT) of NAs at or exceeding 4 log2. Exclusion of the PRRSV-2 isolate from the panel increased the proportion of elite neutralizers to around 15%. Farm-specific analysis revealed significant variations in both GMT of NAs and proportion of elite neutralizers. PRRSV unstable farms and those with a PRRS outbreak in the last 12 months displayed higher GMT of NAs compared to stable farms without recent outbreaks. The GMT of NAs showed a gradual, albeit moderate, increase with the parity of the sows. Parity's impact on bNA response was consistently observed in stable farms but not necessarily in unstable farms or those with recent outbreaks. Finally, the results indicated that vaccinated animals had higher NA titers against the vaccine virus used in the farm than against field viruses. CONCLUSION: bNAs against heterologous isolates induced by PRRSV infection under field conditions are generally low, often falling below titers necessary for protection against reproductive failure. However, a subset of sows (approximately 15%) can be considered elite neutralizers, efficiently recognizing various PRRSV strains. Repeated exposures to PRRSV play a crucial role in eliciting these bNAs, with a higher frequency observed in unstable farms and those with recent outbreaks. In stable farms, parity only marginally influences bNA titers, highlighting its limited role compared to the impact of PRRSV exposure history.

Gambling Habits and Attitudes among Athlete and Non-Athlete High School Students in Skåne Region, Sweden.

Previous literature has reported increased rates of gambling problems in athletes compared to non-athletes. More liberal gambling-related attitudes have been suggested as a reason, although this rarely has been researched. The present study aimed to examine gambling experience, gambling problems, and gambling-related attitudes and parental gambling experience in high school students, comparing student-athletes to students at conventional schools. This is a cross-sectional web survey study in high school students (N = 473, 53% at sports high schools, 57% male) at eleven schools in the Skåne region, Sweden, who answered a web survey addressed gambling experiences, parental gambling and gambling-related attitudes, and included validated screening instruments for gambling problems and psychological distress. A history of any gambling was common and increased with age. Problem gambling was detected in 10% (13% of males and 5% of females, p < .001), and was associated with paternal and maternal gambling but not with psychological distress. Sports high school students were not more likely (9%) than other students (10%) to endorse gambling problems and history of each gambling type. However, paternal (but not maternal) gambling was more commonly reported in athletes, who also had more positive attitudes to gambling's effects on society and gambling availability. In contrast to other studies, this study did not demonstrate higher prevalence of gambling or gambling problems among young athletes than among other students, but liberal attitudes towards gambling, and experience of parental gambling on the father's side, were more common among athletes than among non-athletes. Gambling attitudes in adolescents may need to be targeted in future preventive efforts in young athletes and others.

Menstrual cycle tracking in professional volleyball athletes.

Introduction: The menstrual cycle may affect well-being and physical performance of elite female athletes by interfering with the function of multiple physiological systems. The aim of this study was to characterize the symptoms of the menstrual cycle and their frequency in elite female volleyball players. Methods: Twenty professional female volleyball players were instructed to track their menstrual symptoms over the course of the first German national league season using the FitrWoman® tracking app. The app recorded the cycle length, duration, and intensity of the period as well as the occurrence and frequency of frequent cycle symptoms. The reported symptoms were then categorized into four categories (frequently, sometimes, rare, never) in order to create an individual Menstrual Symptom index (MSi) for each athlete. Results: The most frequently occurring symptoms among all players without hormonal contraception (non-HC; n = 15) were "stomach cramps" (n = 15), "sleep disturbances" (n = 11), and "tiredness" (n = 11). The average number of symptoms counted per cycle was 11.8 (±17.7) and the average calculated MSi within the team was 12.9 (±10.7) points for non-HC users. The HC players (n = 4) also regularly experienced symptoms such as "sleep disturbances" or "tendered breasts". The most common symptoms "stomach cramps" and "disturbed sleep" occurred more frequently during menstruation, while symptoms such as "bloating", "cravings" or "tendered breasts" did also peak before menstruation. Discussion: Menstrual cycle symptoms can be highly individual within a professional sports team. The calculation of the MSi seems to be a simple and accessible method to describe and overview the intensity and prevalence of symptoms in top female athletes in sports games.

Ligament augmentation and reconstruction system (LARS) synthetic grafts are safe and effective for medial collateral ligament and posterolateral corner reconstructions in elite athletes.

PURPOSE: This study documents the efficacy and safety of using a Ligament Augmentation and Reconstruction System (LARS) ligament graft to augment extra-articular knee ligament reconstructions in elite athletes by reporting return-to-play (RTP) rates and levels, career longevity and complications. METHODS: A consecutive series of all extra-articular knee ligament reconstructions augmented by LARS ligaments in elite athletes undertaken by three specialist sports knee surgeons between 2013 and 2020 were reviewed. Seventy-six elite athletes, aged over 16 years old, and more than 2 years postsurgery were included. RTP was defined as competing at professional level or national/international level in amateur sport. RESULTS: There were 64 medial collateral ligament (MCL) and 12 posterolateral corner (PLC) reconstructions. Fifty-two (68.4%) underwent concomitant autograft cruciate ligament(s) reconstruction. The mean age was 25.1 years (SD ± 4.5). Most were football (35, 46.1%) or rugby players (35, 46.1%). Sixty-seven athletes (88.2%) RTP with 65 (97.0%) of these playing at the same or higher Tegner level. Fifty-six (83.6%) of the athletes that RTP were still playing at 2 years postsurgery. Twenty (57.1%) of those who had RTP and were more than 5 years postsurgery were still playing at 5 years. Six (7.9%) players required further surgery relating to the LARS/metalwork. One case had soft tissue inflammation adjacent to the proximal end of the synthetic graft, but it is unknown if this was mechanical irritation or a biological reaction. One MCL reruptured 4 years after RTP. CONCLUSION: Utilising LARS to augment extra-articular knee ligament reconstructions allows 88.2% of athletes with a variety of knee ligament injuries to return to elite sport. The low morbidity rates coupled with 57% of athletes still playing 5 years postsurgery demonstrates that the LARS is safe and effective in these cases. Although there are reports of LARS ligaments being used in MCL and PLC reconstructions, there is very little evidence investigating if they are safe and effective. This study demonstrates that LARS synthetic grafts can be safely used for MCL and PLC reconstructions in elite athletes and they permit a high RTP with a low risk of complications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Gender Differences in Core Muscle Morphology of Elite Alpine Skiers: Insights from Ultrasonography.

This study investigates gender differences in core muscle morphology among elite alpine skiers using ultrasonography, highlighting significant disparities that could influence training and injury prevention strategies. METHODS: A cross-sectional design was employed, examining ultrasound imaging (USI) in 22 elite skiers (11 male, 11 female) to assess the thickness of the external oblique (EO), internal oblique (IO), transversus abdominis (TrAb), and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles. RESULTS: Significant differences were noted, with male skiers displaying greater muscle thickness, particularly in the right IO and RA and left IO, EO, TrAb, and RA. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that male and female skiers may require different training approaches to optimize performance and reduce injury risks. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the physical demands on elite skiers and underscores the need for gender-specific training regimens to enhance athletic outcomes and prevent injuries.

Performance determinants and evidence-based practice in track cycling: A survey of coaches, practitioners, and athletes.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined how track cycling coaches, practitioners, and athletes: develop knowledge and practices; value performance areas; and, implement research into practice. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. METHODS: An online REDCap survey of track cycling coaches, practitioners, and athletes was conducted involving questions related to demographics, performance area importance, knowledge acquisition and application, research relevance, and research direction. RESULTS: A total of 159 responses were received from coaches (n = 55), practitioners (n = 29), and athletes (n = 75). Participants' highest track cycling competition level involvement ranged from local/regional (12.7%) to Olympic/Paralympic (39.9%). Respondents primarily develop practices by observing 'the sport' or 'others competing/working in it' (both 85.8%). Practitioners develop practices through self-guided learning (96.4%). The primary reason for practice use was prior experience (84.9%), whilst individuals were least likely to use practices resulting in marginal gains with potentially negative outcomes (27.3%). Areas of greatest perceived importance were Aerodynamics, Strength & Conditioning, and Tactics (all >96% agreed/strongly agreed). Scientific evidence for Tactics (30%) and Mental Skills (26%) was perceived to be lacking, resulting in greater reliance on personal experience (74% and 62%, respectively) to inform training decisions. The main barrier to implementing research into practice was athlete buy-in (84.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Within track cycling, informal learning was most popular amongst respondents. Greater reliance on personal experience within evidence-based practice for many performance areas aligns with limited existing research. Most respondents reported multiple barriers affecting research implementation in practice.

Development and implementation of an injury and illness surveillance system for team USA.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this report is to provide insight and details regarding the development and implementation of an injury and illness surveillance (IIS) system for the United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee (USOPC). METHODS: The development and deployment of the IIS employed a multiphase approach. First, researchers determined variables to include in the IIS using the recommendations from the 2020 IOC consensus statement for reporting sport epidemiological data. Second, the hosting and deployment platforms were comprehensively evaluated for their suitability, ease of use, flexibility, and backend data structure (for both capture and aggregation). Third, focus groups consisting of the Sports Medicine department leadership and clinicians piloted the IIS system and revisions were made based on their feedback. Pilot testing of the IIS and follow-up focus groups were then conducted among all departmental clinicians to solicit additional feedback and drive further revisions. Finally, the IIS system was piloted among providers working during the 2023 Pan American and Parapan American Games to refine the system for future Games. After reviewing all potential software platform options (electronic medical record [EMR] system, athlete management systems, secure data collection platforms), Qualtrics (Qualtrics, Provo, UT, USA) was selected to host the IIS system. This choice was made due to the inability of the EMR and athlete-management systems to make frequent updates, modify existing questions, and provide the necessary form logic for the variety of scenarios in which the IIS system would be deployed. Feedback from the department's leadership and clinicians resulted in a number of changes, most notably being the ability to enter multiple diagnoses for a single injury event. Additionally, clinician feedback resulted in the creation of additional diagnostic codes not currently present in the OSIICS v14.0 diagnostic coding system, adding "non-sport" as an additional variable for injury setting, and developing a system for reporting return-to-sport date for time-loss injuries. DISCUSSION: A multi-stage process of extensive planning, stakeholder feedback, and ongoing updates is required in order to successfully develop and implement an IIS system within a National Olympic and Paralynpic Committee. This process can be used to inform the development and implementation of IIS systems in other sporting organizations.

Analysing substitutions in recent World Cups and European Championships in male and female elite football - influence of new substitution rules.

Substitutions play a key role in modern football and can substantially affect the physical and overall performance of a team, and the recent substitution rule changes are worth investigating. This study explored the characteristics of substitutions, including different substitution rules, game results, sex, competition stages, tournaments and penalty shoot-outs success rates. We analysed data from a total of 3,738 substitutions from the last 10 years (2013-2023) of European Championships and World Cups, both men's and women's games. Non-parametric tests and chi-square tests were used for statistical analysis with the significance level set at p < 0.05. With the 5-substitution rule, 48% more substitutions occurred compared to the 3-substitution rule (4.26 ± 1.07 vs. 2.87 ± 0.43, p < 0.05) with a slight increase in the average substitution time (70.6 ± 14.3 vs. 69.2 ± 14.6 min, p < 0.05), and 10% more substitutions in the men's game compared to the women's game (p < 0.05). The timing of the first substitution was slightly different in the knock-out stage compared to group stage (59.8 ± 14.7 vs. 57.2 ± 13.3 min, p < 0.05), and the timing for the winning team and drawing team was later than for the losing team (p < 0.05). A total of 13.2% goals were scored by substitutes, with no significant difference between the 5-substitution rule (15.9%) vs the 3-substition rule (12.5%) (p > 0.05). Interestingly, substitute players had a lower success rate in penalty shoot-out compared to starters (61 vs. 74%, p < 0.05). Additionally, substitute player goal scorers entered the pitch later (p < 0.05) in male games compared to female games and in knock-out stage games compared to group games. This study highlights the importance of substitution rules and timing in modern elite football matches. The timing of the first substitution, introduction of substitutes in knock-out stages, and a lower success rate of substitute players in penalty shoot-outs are crucial factors to consider. Coaches can use this information to make strategic substitution decisions to improve team performance.

Blood flow restriction as a post-exercise recovery strategy: A systematic review of the current status of the literature.

The aim of this study was to systematically review the current literature on blood flow restriction (BFR) as a post-exercise recovery strategy. Experimental studies investigating the effect of BFR on recovery after exercise were included. Only studies meeting the following inclusion criteria were selected: (a) studies investigating about BFR as a post-exercise recovery strategy in athletes and healthy individuals; (b) the full text being available in English; (c) experimental research study design. Studies that exclusively analyzed BFR as a recovery strategy during the exercise (e.g., recovery strategy between bouts of exercise) were excluded. A literature review was conducted on the PubMed, Cochrane, and Web of Science electronic databases up until May 7th, 2023. The main findings were that (i) 9 studies investigated passive BFR as a post-exercise recovery strategy, which shows a significant lack of research in both team and individual sports (especially in female populations), and only 2 studies used active BFR protocols; (ii) although a high quality range of studies was observed, there were methodological limitations such as BFR interventions that were usually conducted after fatiguing protocols or fitness tests, which may not represent the real exercise (e.g., a sprint session of 6 sets of 50 m may induce muscle damage but it does not represent the demands of a team sport like rugby or soccer); (iii) there is a lack of consistency in BFR protocols (e.g., number of cycles or duration of the occlusion-reperfusion periods) for recovery; (iv) some studies showed beneficial effects while others found no positive or detrimental effects of BFR as a post-exercise recovery strategy in comparison with the control/SHAM group. In conclusion, only 11 studies investigated BFR as a post-exercise recovery strategy and there is not any significant amount of evidence in team or individual sports (especially in female populations). BFR could be a potential post-exercise recovery strategy, but practitioners should use caution when applying this method of recovery for their athletes and clients. In addition, it would be of interest for high performance-related practitioners to have a better understanding of the benefits of BFR interventions combined with either active or passive forms of exercise as a post-exercise recovery strategy.

Dual-task costs in speed tasks: a comparison between elite ice hockey, open-skill and closed-skill sports athletes.

Introduction: Ice hockey is a high pace sports game that requires players to integrate multiple skills. Players face perceptive, cognitive, and motor tasks concurrently; hence, players are regularly exposed to dual- or multi-task demands. Dual-tasking has been shown to lead to decreased performance in one or both performed tasks. The degree of performance reductions might be modulated by the exhaustion of cognitive resources. Literature on dual-task paradigms that combine sport-relevant elements is scarce. Therefore, a novel paradigm combining cyclical speed of the lower extremities and concurrent visuo-verbal speed reading was tested and validated. Additionally, to understand the nature of dual-task costs, the relationship between these costs and cognitive performance was assessed. We hypothesized occurrence of dual-task costs in all athletes without relationship to single task performance. Differences in dual-task cost were expected between open-skill and closed-skill sports, as well as differing expertise levels. Level of cognitive function was expected to explain some variance in dual-task cost. Methods: A total of 322 elite athletes (120 ice hockey, 165 other team sports, 37 closed-skill sports) participated in this study. Each athlete performed a tapping task, a visuo-verbal speed-reading task, and both tasks simultaneously. All ice hockey athletes performed additional cognitive tests assessing processing speed, spatial working memory, sustained attention, two choice reaction time, and motor inhibition. Results: The results of paired-sample t-tests confirmed significant dual-task costs for all sport groups (p < 0.001). Single-task performance and dual-task costs correlated weakly in a positive direction. A one-way ANOVA revealed significantly greater costs in closed-skill sports athletes than in ice hockey and other sports athletes. No significant differences in dual-task costs were found between teams of differing expertise levels. Lastly, no significant regression model was found to predict dual-task costs from cognitive test performance. Discussion: Our study suggests that this novel dual-task paradigm was successful in inducing dual-task costs for all elite athletes. Since it distinguishes between closed-skill and open-skill sports athletes, it might be a valuable diagnostic tool for performance and for talent development of open-skill athletes. Dual-task costs could not be relevantly predicted via cognitive performance measures, questioning cognitive resource theories as an explanation for dual-task costs.

Neuromechanical proficiency in elite performance decision-making: An event-related potential (ERP) analysis.

This research focuses intensively on the neural mechanisms of action selection responses in elite athletes during high-stakes decision-making. It emphasizes the neuromechanical dimensions of these processes, contrasting the responses of expert and novice players within a theoretical framework of neural information processing in high-performance contexts. Utilizing advanced EEG technologies, including event-related potential (ERP) analysis, the study captures a comprehensive view of both behavioral and neurophysiological data. The central aim is to unravel the intricate neural underpinnings that distinguish elite athletes in their decision-making strategies. Key findings highlight: (1) Enhanced accuracy and swifter reaction times in elite athletes during the action selection phase; (2) Significant neurophysiological differences, marked by pronounced N1 peak amplitudes with prolonged latencies, reduced P2 peak amplitudes with stable latencies, decreased P3 peak amplitudes with reduced latencies, and increased average PSW amplitudes. These discoveries significantly advance our understanding of the neural foundations of expert decision-making in high-performance sports. This study not only sheds light on the cognitive and neural dynamics of elite sports performance but also provides a foundation for developing training and performance enhancement techniques in various high-stakes domains.